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BY    MARY    P     HYDl  ; 


BOOK 
TWO 


D  C  HEATH  BiCa  Vif^fVTON  U  S  A 


S7o 


DEI 


No. 


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V- 


TWO-BOOK    COURSE 
IN    ENGLISH 


BOOK    TWO 

PRACTICAL  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 
WITH     EXERCISES     IN     COMPOSITION 


BY 


MARY    F.    HYDE 

AUTHOR    OF   "  PRACTICAL   LESSONS  IN   THE   USE   OF   ENGLISH ' 

"  A   PRACTICAL    ENGLISH    GRAMMAR  " 

"  WORD   ANALYSIS,"    ETC. 


BOSTON,   U.S.A. 

D.    C.    HEATH    &   CO.,    PUBLISHERS 

1904 


Copyright,  1900  and  1901 
Dy  MARY  F.   HYDE 


3>l  DEPf. 


.4LL   KIGHTS   KESEKVED 


BOSTON,   MASS.,   U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  designed  for  the  higher  grades  in  grammar 
schools,  and  for  those  classes  in  high  schools,  academies, 
and  ungraded  schools  that  require  a  brief,  practical,  pro- 
gressive course  in  English  grammar. 

The  aim  of  the  work  is  to  give  the  pupil  a  mastery  of  the 
fundamental  facts  of  English  grammar,  and  to  lead  him  to 
use  that  knowledge  in  the  interpretation  of  literature  and 
in  the  expression  of  his  own  thought. 

The  instruction  has  been  made  concrete  by  the  use  of 
illustrative  examples.  These  examples  have  been  selected 
with  great  care  from  the  works  of  the  best  writers,  and 
they  not  only  serve  to  make  clear  the  grammatical  points 
under  consideration,  but  also  aid  in  the  formation  of  the 
pupil's  literary  taste,,  and  help  him  to  see  that  the  laws  of 
language  are  derived  from  the  usage  of  the  best  writers 
and  speakers. 

Abundant  and  varied  exercises  for  the  application  of  the 
principles  presented  are  given  throughout  the  book.  The 
pupil  is  required  to  show  his  understanding  of  the  subject 
by  his  ability  to  give  original  illustrations  of  the  facts 
studied,  as  well  as  to  point  out  and  explain  the  various 
forms  and  constructions  found  in  sentences  selected  from 
literature.  54  H45 


iv  PREFACE 

The  selection  and  arrangement  of  topics  is  adapted  to 
give  the  pupil  a  clear  and  comprehensive  view  of  the  sub- 
ject. Part  First  treats  of  the  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of 
Speech,  and  lays  the  foundation  for  the  pupil's  mastery 
of  the  sentence  by  emphasizing  the  fact  that  it  is  not  the 
form,  but  the  function,  of  a  word  in  a  sentence  that 
determines  the  class  to  which  it  belongs. 

Part  Second  takes  up  the  subdivisions  of  the  Parts  of 
Speech  and  Inflection.  The  chief  emphasis  is  placed  upon 
the  main  facts,  but  the  attention  of  the  pupil  is  also  directed 
to  such  special  forms  and  uses  of  words  as  he  will  be  most 
likely  to  meet  in  his  reading.  Special  training  is  given 
upon  words  and  forms  commonly  misused. 

Part  Third  treats  of  Syntax.  It  gives  the  leading  con- 
structions of  words  in  the  English  sentence,  with  numerous 
illustrations  from  literature. 

Part  Fourth  treats  of  the  Structure  and  Analysis  of  sen- 
tences. It  provides  for  a  careful  study  of  clauses  in  con- 
nection with  the  complex  sentence,  and  contains  clear  and 
concise  models  for  oral  and  written  analysis  and  a  great 
abundance  of  carefully  selected  matter  for  illustration  and 
practice. 

Part  Fifth  relates  to  Composition.  It  gives  training  upon 
the  paragraph,  exercises  in  narration  and  description,  and 
a  special  study  of  letter-writing  and  related  subjects. 

My  cordial  thanks  are  returned  to  all  who,  by  criticism 
or  suggestion,  have  aided  in  the  preparation  of  this  book. 

M.  F.  H. 


CONTENTS 

PART    FIRST 
The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech 

CHAPTER  PAGB 

I.     The  Sentence  ...         ......  i 

II.     Subject  and  Predicate      .......  3 

III.  Modified  Subject  and  Predicate 4 

IV.  Order  of  Subject  and  Predicate         .....  5 
V.     Nouns      ..........  9 

VI.     Pronouns          .........  10 

VII.     Adjectives 12 

VIII.     Verbs 14 

IX.     Adverbs 16 

X.     Prepositions 17 

XI.     Conjunctions    .........  20 

XII.     Interjections 22 

XIII.  Review  of  the  Parts  of  Speech          .....  23 

XIV.  Phrases 27 

XV.     Clauses 27 

PART   SECOND 

Subdivisions  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  and  Inflection 

XVI.     Classes  of  Nouns 29 

XVII.     Inflection  of  Nouns  —  Number 32 

XVIII.     Irregular  Plurals  of  Nouns 36 


VI 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  .                                                                    PAGE 

XIX.  Plurals  of  Compounds  ...         .o,.      39 

XX.     Nouns  with  Foreign  Plurals 41 

XXI.  Inflection  of  Nouns  —  Gender       .         .         .         ,*        .42 

XXII.     Inflection  of  Nouns  —  Case 45 

XXIII.  Possessive  Case     .         . 48 

XXIV.  Possessive  Case  of  Compounds 50 

XXV.  Substitute  for  the  Possessive  Inflection          ...       52 

XXVI.     How  to  Parse  Nouns '53 

XXVII.     Review  of  Nouns .55 

XXVIII.  Classes  of  Pronouns  —  Personal  Pronouns     ...       57 

XXIX.     Compound  Personal  Pronouns 62 

XXX.  Classes  of  Pronouns  —  Adjective  Pronouns    ...       64 

XXXI.  Classes  of  Pronouns  —  Relative  Pronouns      ...       66 

XXXII.     Use  of  Relative  Pronouns 68 

XXXIII.  Relative  Clauses 76 

XXXIV.  Classes  of  Pronouns  —  Interrogative  Pronouns       .         .       78 
XXXV.  How  to  Parse  Pronouns         .         .         .         .         .         .81 

XXXVI.     Review  of  Pronouns 84 

XXXVII.  Classes  of  Adjectives     .......       85 

XXXVIII.     Articles 88 

XXXIX.  Comparison  of  Adjectives      .         .         .         .         .         .92 

XL.     How  to  Parse  Adjectives •       97 

XLI.  Choice  of  Adjectives      .......       99 

XLII.  Review  of  Adjectives     .         .         .         ,         .         .         .101 

XLIII.     Classes  of  Verbs 103 

XLIV.  Verbs  of  Incomplete  Predication  .         .         .        .         .     105 

XLV.     Active  and  Passive  Voice 107 

XLVI.     Mode 109 

XLVII.     The  Infinitive 112 

XLVIII.     The  Participle 115 

XLIX.     Tense 118 


CONTENTS 


Vll 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

L.     Person  and  Number 121 

LI.     Forms  of  Verbs •123 

LI  I.     Auxiliary  Verbs     .         . 127 

LI II.     Auxiliary  Verbs  {Continued^ 131 

LIV.     Auxiliary  Verbs  (^Continued) 133 

LV.  Auxiliary  Verbs  {Continued^         .         .         .         .         .138 

LVI.     Conjugation  of  the  Verb  Z>r/z/<? 142 

LVII.  Directions  for  Parsing  Verbs,  Infinitives,  and  Participles     147 

LVIII.     Correct  Use  of  Verbs 153 

LIX.     Review  of  Verbs 157 

LX.  Classes  of  Adverbs         .         .         .         .         .         .         •     159 

LXI.     Comparison  of  Adverbs 162 

LXII.  How  to  Parse  Adverbs           .         .         .         .         .         .163 

LXIII.  Adverbs  distinguished  from  Adjectives  ....     165 

LXIV.     Classes  of  Phrases 167 

LXV.     Prepositions 171 

LXVI.     Classes  of  Conjunctions 174 

LXVII.     How  to  Parse  Conjunctions 177 

LXVIII.     Interjections 180 

PART  THIRD 

Syntax 


LXIX. 

Construction  of  Nouns  . 

LXX. 

Construction  of  Pronouns 

LXXI. 

Construction  of  Adjectives 

LXXII. 

Construction  of  Verbs  . 

LXXIII. 

Construction  of  Infinitives 

LXXIV. 

Construction  of  Participles 

LXXV. 

Construction  of  Adverbs 

LXXVI. 

Construction  of  Prepositions 

181 

193 
199 

203 

207 
210 

212 
213 


vm 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 

LXXVII. 

LXXVIII. 

LXXIX. 


Construction  of  Conjunctions 
Varied  Uses  of  Words 
Selections  for  Parsing 


PAGE 

217 
218 

220 


PART   FOURTH 

Structure  and  Analysis  of  Sentences 

LXXX.     Structure  of  the  Sentence    . 

I.     Elements  of  a  Sentence 
II.     Structure  of  Elements     . 
III.     Classes  of  Sentences 
LXXXI.     The  Simple  Sentence 

I.     The  Subject  .... 
II.     Modifiers  of  the  Subject 

III.  The  Predicate 

IV.  Modifiers  of  the  Predicate 
V.     Analysis  of  Simple  Sentences 

LXXXII.     The  Complex  Sentence       . 
I.     Noun  Clauses 
II.     Adjective  Clauses   . 

III.  Adverbial  Clauses  . 

IV.  Analysis  of  Complex  Sentences 
LXXXIII.     The  Compound  Sentence    . 
LXXXIV.     Selections  for  Analysis 


222 

222 
223 
225 
227 
227 
227 
228 
229 
230 
236 

237 
240 
241 
246 
252 
255 


PART  FIFTH 

Composition 

LXXXV.     The  Paragraph 259 

LXXX VI.     Study  of  a  Selection 263 

LXXXVII.     Study  of  a  Description  267 


CONTENTS 


IX 


CHAPTER  •  PAGE 

LXXXVIII.     Oral  Composition 269 

LXXXIX.  Exercises  in  Narration  and  Description       .         .         .  270 

XC.  Study  of  a  Description         ......  272 

XCI.     Letter-writing 276 

XCII.  Business  Forms  ........  296 

XCIII.     Social  Forms 304 

APPENDIX 

I.     The  English  Language 307 

IL  Rules  for  the  Use  of  Capital  Letters    .         .         .         -313 

Rules  for  the  Use  of  Marks  of  Punctuation           .         .  314 

in.  List  of  Abbreviations           .         .         .         .         .       -.  319 

Index       . 321 


Part   First 

THE   SENTENCE   AND   THE    PARTS   OF   SPEECH 

CHAPTER    I 
THE    SENTENCE 

A  sentence   is  the   expression  of  a  complete  thought   in 

words;  as, — 

1.  The  fire  burns  brightly. 

2.  The  sky  is  clear. 

A  sentence  may  — 

(i)   State  or  declare  something;  as,  The  leaves  are  falling. 

(2)  Express  a  command  or  an  entreaty ;  as,  Look  at  the 
leaves. 

(3)  Ask  a  question  ;  as,   What  makes  the  leaves  fall  f 

(4)  Express  sudden  or  strong  feeling;    as,  How  silently 
the  leaves  fall ! 

A  sentence  that  states  or  declares  something  is  a  declarative 
sentence. 

A  sentence  that  expresses  a  command  or  an  entreaty  is  an 
imperative  sentence. 

i 


2  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

A  sentence  that  asks  a  question  is  an  interrogative  sentence. 
A  sentence  that  expresses  sudden  or  strong  feeling  is  an 
exclamatory  sentence. 

EXERCISE  1 

Fn  each  of  the  following  examples,  tell  for  what  the  sen- 
tence is  used  and  what  kind  of  sentence  it  is :  — 

1.  Nearly  all  the  night-birds  fly  on  wings  that  make  no  noise. 

2.  Every  day  is  the  best  day  of  the  year. 

3.  How  the  early  settlers  prized  the  apple  ! 

4.  A  friendly  eye  could  never  see  such  faults, 

5.  Many  flowers  close  their  petals  during  rain. 

6.  The  house  was  built  of  stone. 

7.  We  heard  the  distant  roar  of  the  surf. 

8.  'How  beautiful  is  the  rain  ! 

9.  Night  is  the  time  for  rest. 

10.  How  many  persons  entered  the  room? 

11.  We  could  hear  the  chattering  cry  of  the  king-fisher. 

12.  What  an  admirable  piece  of  work  this  is! 

13.  On  the  cross  beam  under  the  Old  South  bell 
The  nest  of  a  pigeon  is  builded  well. 

14.  A  tear  stood  in  his  bright  blue  eye. 

15.  I    had   three   fine   rosy-cheeked   schoolboys   for   my   fellow- 
passengers. 

16.  Beware  of  entrance  to  a  quarrel. 

17.  Let  us  do  right  to  all  men. 

18.  Remember  the  Sabbath  day  to  keep  it  holy. 

19.  Few  know  the  use  of  life  before  'tis  past. 

20.  The  troops  were  concealed  by  a  thick  wood. 

21.  The  fisheries  are  the  chief  support  of  Yarmouth. 


SUBJECT  AND   PREDICATE 


EXERCISE  2 


Select  from  your  Reader  ( i )  three  declarative  sentences ; 
(2)  three  unperative  sente^ices ;  (3)  three  interrogative  sen- 
tences ;  (4)  three  exclamatory  sentences. 

CHAPTER   II 

SUBJECT   AND   PREDICATE 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  tell  (i)  what  the  asser- 
tion is  about;  (2)  what  is  said  or  asserted  about  the  thing 
named :  — 

1.  Birds  fly.  3.   Rain  falls. 

2.  Fishes  swim.  4.   Water  evaporates. 

Every  sentence  consists  of  two  parts.  One  part  names 
that  about  which  something  is  said,  and  is  called  the  subject ; 
the  other  part  tells  what  is  said  or  asserted  about  the  thing 
named  by  the  subject,  and  is  called  the  predicate. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  names  that  about  which  something 
is  asserted. 

The  predicate  of  a  sentence  tells  what  is  asserted  about  the 
person  or  thing  named  by  the  subject. 

EXERCISE  3 

State  the  subject  and  the  predicate  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences^  giving  in  each  case  a  reason  for  your  statement :  — 

1.  Plants  grow.  4.   Leaves  fall.  7.   Parrots  talk. 

2.  Animals  move.  5.    Rivers  flow.  8.    Quails  whistle. 

3.  Men  think.  6.   Ice  melts.  9.   Thrushes  sing. 


4  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   III 

MODIFIED    SUBJECT   AND   PREDICATE 

The  subject  and  the  predicate  may  each  be  expressed 
by  a  single  word,  or  by  two  or  more  words;  as, — 

1.  Birds  fly. 

2.  Some  birds  fly  swiftly. 

In  the  second  sentence  above,  the  word  some  limits  the 
meaning  of  the  word  birds,  by  showing  that  not  all  birds  are 
meant.  The  word  swiftly  adds  to  the  meaning  of  the  word 
^ fly,  by  showing  the  manner  of  flight. 

When  a  word  limits  the  application  or  adds  to  the  meaning 
of  another  word  in  this  manner,  it  is  said  to  modify  that 
word,  and  'is  called  a  modifier ;  as,  tJiis  moment,  kind  words, 
speak  softly,  step  quickly. 

The  subject  without  modifiers  is  the  grammatical  or  simple 
subject ;    as,  Leaves  fall. 

The  grammatical  subject  with  its  modifiers  is  the  logical 
or  complete  subject ;   as.    The  dead  leaves  fall. 

The  predicate  without  modifiers  is  the  grammatical  or  simple 
predicate  ;  as,  Time  flies. 

The  grammatical  predicate  with  its  modifiers  is  the  logical 
or  complete  predicate  ;  as,  Time  flies  swiftly. 

EXERCISE  4 
Name  the  co^nplete  subject  and  the  complete  predicate,  in 
each  of  the  followittg  sentences :  — 

1.  Language  is  the  highest  mode  of  expression. 

2.  The  first  spring  wild-flowers  yield  no  honey. 


ORDER  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE        5 

» 

3.  The  old  oaken  bucket  hangs  in  the  well. 

4.  The  palm  tree  is  found  in  every  country  from  the  Tigris  to 
the  Atlantic. 

5 .  The  blue  smoke  widened  slowly  "upward  through  the  quiet 
August  atmosphere. 

6.  This  wonderful  tree  stood  in  the  centre  of  an  ancient  wood. 

7.  The  other  colonies  were  not  slow  in  acting. 

8.  Two  important  steps  had  now  to  be  taken  at  once. 

9.  A  merciful  man  considers  his  beast. 

10.  The  good  old  year  is  with  the  past. 

11.  All  plants  of  the  same  kind  need  the  same  sort  of  food. 

12.  The  summer  breezes  go  lightly  by. 

13.  Every  individual  has  a  place  to  fill  in  the  world. 

14.  A  wise  son  heareth  his  father's  instruction. 


CHAPTER    IV 

ORDER  OF    SUBJECT   AND    PREDICATE 
I.    IN   DECLARATIVE   SENTENCES 

The  subject  of  a  declarative  sentence  is  usually  placed 
before  the  predicate.  This  order  of  parts  is  called  the 
usual  order ;  as,  — 

The  well-curb  had  a  Chinese  roof. 

But  sometimes,  especially  in  poetry,  this  order  is  trans- 
posed or  inverted,  and  the  subject  is  placed  after  the 
predicate ;  as,  — 

Up  springs  the  lark. 

Sweet  is  the  breath  of  morn. 


6  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  5 

Change  the  following  sentences  from  the  transposed  order 
to  the  usual  order,  and  name  the  complete  siLbject  and  the 
complete  predicate  in  each  :  — 

1.  Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart. 

2.  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight. 

3.  On  their  right  was  a  steep  hill. 

4.  Into  the  valley  of  death 

Rode  the  six  hundred. 

5.  At  the  head  of  the  bay  is  the  town. 

6.  Here  will  we  build  our  habitations. 

7.  Behind  him  came  a  throng  of  officers. 

8.  Up  flew  the  windows  all. 

11.    IN   IMPERATIVE   SENTENCES 

The  subject  of  an  imperative  sentence  is  thon,  ye,  or 
yoti.     It  is  seldom  expressed ;  thus,  — 

Come  into  the  garden  (=  [You]  come  into  the  garden). 

When  the  subject   is  expressed,  it  is  usually  placed  after 

the  verb;  as, — 

Praise  ye  the  Lord. 

In  familiar  language,  the  subject  sometimes  comes  before 
the  verb ;  as,  — 

You  stand  here.  You  keep  still. 

EXERCISE  6 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  supplying  the  subjects  that 
are  understood  and  enclosing  them  in  brackets :  — 

1.  Listen  to  this  account  of  the  fire. 

2.  Fling  wide  the  gates. 


ORDER  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE        7 

3.  Throw  part  of  the  cargo  overboard. 

4.  Speak  gently  to  the    erring. 

5.  Cleanse  thou  me  from  secret  faults. 
6.'  Be  not  weary  in  well  doing. 

7.  Rejoice  in  the  prosperity  of  others. 

8.  Follow  the  directions  carefully. 

III.     IN   INTERROGATIVE   SENTENCES 

The  subject  of  an  interrogative  sentence  is  usually  placed 
after  the  predicate,  or  after  the  first  word  of  the  predi- 
cate ;   as,  — 

Has  the  sun  spots?  Does  the  sun  shine? 

When  an  interrogative  word  is  used  as  the  subject,  or  as 
a  modifier  of  the  subject,  the  subject  and  predicate  are  in 
the  direct  order ;  as,  — 

Who  comes  here  ?  Which  side  won? 

EXERCISE  7 

Name  the  subject  and  the  predicate  in  each  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences :  — 

1.  Why  does  the  earth  become  cooler  after  sunset? 

2.  Why  is  it  sometimes  foggy  in  the  morning? 

3.  What  causes  the  fog  to  disappear? 

4.  What  wind  is  accompanied  by  a  clear  sky? 

5.  Did  you  ever  see  a  cloudless  sky? 

IV.     IN   EXCLAMATORY   SENTENCES 

Most  exclamatory  sentences  begin  with  how  or  what^  and 
the  subject  and  predicate  are  often  transposed ;  as,  — 


8  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

How  beautiful  is  night ! 

What  an  excellent  likeness  this  is  ! 

Sometimes,  however,  a  declarative,  imperative,  or  interrog- 
ative sentence  is  written  or  printed  with  the  exclamation 
point  at  its  close,  to  give  greater  emphasis  to  the  thought. 
It  is  then  called  an  exclamatory  sentence ;  as,  — 

The  war  is  actually  begun  ! 

Give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death  ! 

Who  can  foretell  the  result ! 


EXERCISE  8 

In  the  following  examples,  (i)  tell  the  kind  of  each  sen- 
tence;  (2)  7iame  its  subject  and  its  predicate.  Give  a  reason 
for  your  statements :  — 

1.  How  excellent  is  thy  loving-kindness  ! 

2.  What  a  deep-rooted  plant  it  was  ! 

3.  How  wonderful  is  sleep  ! 

4.  What  a  crisis  had  now  arrived  ! 

5.  Here  we  are  at  last ! 

6.  How  lightly  past  hardship  sits  upon  us  ! 

7.  What  real  service  to  others  did  you  render  yesterday? 

8.  Consider  the  Hlies  of  the  field. 

9.  Out  of  the  abundance  of  the  heart  the  mouth  speaketb. 

10.  How  blessings  brighten  as  they  take  their  flight ! 

11.  Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets. 

12.  Truth  seeks  open  dealing. 

13.  A  merry  heart  maketh  a  cheerful  countenance. 

14.  Make  yourself  necessary  to  somebody. 


NOUNS  9 

CHAPTER   V 

NOUNS    • 

Which   words   in   the   following    sentences    are    used    as 

names  ? 

1.  Benjamin  Franklin  discovered  electricity. 

2.  A  certain  man  planted  a  vineyard. 

3.  The  shadows  dance  upon  the  wall. 

A  word  used  as  a  name  is  a  noun.  A  noun  may  be 
the  name  of  — 

( 1 )  A  person ;    as,  Homer  was  a  great  poet. 

(2)  A  place;    as,  Cairo  is  the  capital  of  Egypt. 

(3)  A  thing  we  can  see,  feel,  hear,  smell,  or  touch;  as, 
ia)  The  stars  are  bright,  {b)  Ice  is  cold,  (c)  The  bluebird 
sings.     (<^)    Violets  are  sweet. 

(4)  Something  that  we  can  think  of  but  cannot  perceive 
by  the  senses;  as,  id)  Kindness  wins  friends,  {b)  Wis- 
dom is  better  than  strength. 

(5)  An  action;   as.  Rowing  expands  the  chest. 

A  noun  is  a  word  used  as  a  name. 

EXERCISE  9 

In  each  of  the  following  examples ^  ( i )  tell  whether  the  sen- 
tence is  declarative,  imperative,  interrogative,  or  exclamatory ; 
(2)  point  out  the  nouns  in  it,  and  tell  what  each  names :  — 

1.  He  goes  on  Sunday  to  the  church 

And  sits  among  his  boys. 

2.  How  quietly  the  child  sleeps  1 


XO  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

3.  A  large  island  covered  with  palms  divides  the  Nile  into  two 
branches. 

4.  His  door  was  always  open  to  the  wayfarer. 

5.  Hear  me  with  patience. 

6.  From  what  port  did  you  sail  ? 

7.  He    came    early   in    the    spring    to   the   settlement   of   New 
Plymouth. 

8.  The  breeze  comes  whispering  in  our  ear, 
That  dandelions  are  blossoming  near, 

That  maize  has  sprouted,  that  streams  are  flowing, 
That  the  river  is  bluer  than  the  sky, 
That  the  robin  is  plastering  his  house  hard  by; 
And  if  the  breeze  kept  the  good  news  back, 
For  other  couriers  we  should  not  lack. 

EXERCISE  10 
Write  (i)  two  sentences ,  each  containing  the  name  of  a 
person;  (2)  tzvo  sentences,  each  containing  the  name  of 
a  place ;  (3)  two  sentences,  each  containing  the  name  of  a 
thing  perceived  by  the  senses  ;  (4)  two  sentences,  each  contain- 
ing the  name  of  a  quality  ;  (5)  two  sentences,  each  containing 
the  name  of  a  feeling.  Underline  the  nouns  in  the  sejitences 
written. 

CHAPTER  VI 

PRONOUNS 

For  what  are  the  italicized  words  used  in  the  following 

sentences } 

I.   /  met  a  little  cottage  girl, 

She  was  eight  years  old,  she  said. 


PRONOUNS  II 

2.  "Sisters  and  brothers,  little  maid, 
How  many  may  you  be  ?  " 

3.  "  How  many  ?     Seven  in  all,"  she  said, 
And  wondering  looked  at  me, 

A  word  used  for  a  noun  is  a  pronoun.  By  the  use  of 
the  pronoun,  we  can  avoid  the  repetition  of  a  noun,  and 
designate  a  person  or  thing  without  naming  it.  A  pronoun 
may  designate  — 

(i)  The  speaker  or  the  speaker  and  others;  as,  /,  my, 
me,  we,  our,  us. 

(2)  The  person  or  persons  addressed;  as,  thou,  thy,  thee^ 
ye,  your,  you. 

(3)  A  person  or  thing,  or  two  or  more  persons  or  things, 
that  have  been  previously  mentioned ;  as,  he,  his,  him,  she, 
her,  hers,  it,  its,  they,  their,  them. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  noun. 

EXERCISE   11 

Point  out  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  and  state 
for  what  each  is  used:  — 

1.  Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go. 

2.  Nearly  all  the  night  insects  are  comparatively  noiseless  in  their 
flight. 

3.  The  books  remain  where  you  left  them. 

4.  When  I  turned  again  to  look  for  the  bird,  I  could  not  see  it. 

5.  Crinkle-root  is  spicy,  but  you  must  partake  of  it  delicately,  or 
it  will  bite  your  tongue. 

6.  Trust  men  and  they  will  be  true  to  you ;  treat  them  greatly 
and  they  will  show  themselves  great. 


12  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

7.  She  folded  her  arms  beneath  her  cloak. 

8.  As  the  route  of  the  friends  lay  in  the  same  direction,  they 
agreed  to  make  the  rest  of  their  journey  together. 

9.  Not  a  soldier  discharged  his  farewell  shot 
O'er  the  grave  where  our  hero  we  buried. 

10.  A  belted  kingfisher  suddenly  appeared  in  the  air  just  in 
front  of  me,  where  he  hovered  for  a  moment  as  if  doubtful  whether 
to  fly  over  us  and  go  up  the  river  or  to  turn  about  and  retreat 
before  us. 

EXERCISE   12 

Write  (i)  two  sentences^  each  containing  a  pronoun  Jised 
to  desigttate  the  speaker ;  (2)  two  sentences^  each  contain- 
ing a  pronoitn  used  to  designate  a  person  addressed ;  (3) 
three  sentences^  eacJi  containing  a  prononn  used  for  the 
name  of  a  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 


CHAPTER   VII 

ADJECTIVES 

Find  in  the  following  sentences  words  used  with  nouns 
to  describe  or  to  point  out  the  things  named :  — 

1.  A  tall  shrub  grows  by  the  brook. 

2.  The  plant  has  yellow  blossoms. 
3.' These  flowers  appear  in  autumn. 

In  the  examples  above,  the  word  tail  describes  the  shrub 
named,  in  regard  to  height ;  the  word  yellow  tells  the  color 
of  the  blossoms ;  the  Hmits  the  application  of  the  noun  plant 
to  a  particular  plant ;  these  points  out  the  flowers  referred  to. 


ADJECTIVES  13 

A  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun is  an  adjective.     An  adjective  may  show  — 

(i)  What  kind  of  thing  is  named;  as,  large  city,  bold 
warrior,  merry  heart. 

(2)  How  many  things  are  mentioned ;  as,  ten  command- 
ments, twelve  months,  some  lakes,  many  books. 

(3)  How  much  of  a  quantity  is  referred  to ;  as,  little  rain, 
less  time. 

(4)  What  thing  is  spoken  of ;  as,  this  house,  those  trees, 
yonder  cottage. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun. 

EXERCISE   13 

Name  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences^  state  the 
use  of  each  adjective,  and  tell  what  it  modifies :  — 

1.  Two  ships  were  anchored  in  the  bay. 

2.  Blue  were  her  eyes  as  the  fairy  flax. 

3.  A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father. 

4.  Brave  hearts  were  ready  for  bold  deeds. 

5.  These  people  are  honest,  kind-hearted,  and  industrious. 

6.  The  statue  is  nearly  seven  feet  in  height. 

7.  The  wax  candles  were  now  lighted,  and  showed  a  handsome 
room,  well  provided  with  rich  furniture. 

8.  The  doe  was  a  beauty,  with  slender  limbs,  not  too  heavy 
flanks,  round  body,  and  aristocratic  head,  with  small  ears,  and 
luminous,  intelligent,  affectionate  eyes. 

9.  His  withered  cheek  and  tresses  gray. 
Seemed  to  have  known  a  better  day. 


14  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER  VIII 

VERBS 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  words  that  tell 
or  assert  something  of  the  thing  named  :  — 

1.  Birds  sing. 

2.  The  wind  blows. 

3.  He  is  a  soldier. 

A  word  that  asserts  is  a  verb.     A  verb  may  assert  — 
(i)   Action;    as,  Children //<7j. 

(2)  Being  or  existence ;    as,  God  is. 

(3)  State   or   condition ;    as,    (a)   The    picture   hangs   on 
the  wall,     {b)   The  infant  sleeps. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  asserts. 
Some  verbs  consist  of  more  than  one  word ;  as,  — 
A  ball  ivill  roll.  The  book  has  been  found. 

Such  compound  forms  are  sometimes  called  verb-phrases.^ 
The  word  that  denotes  the  person  or  thing  about  which 
the  assertion  is  made  is  called  the  subject  of  the  verb ;  as,  — 

The  gardener  pruned  the  trees. 

EXERCISE   14 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences^  state  what 
each  tells ^  and  name  its  subject:  — 

1.  The  song-birds  nearly  all  build  low. 

2.  The  weasel  is  an  enemy  of  the  birds. 

1  See  page  27. 


VERBS  15 

3.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day. 

4.  He  springs  from  his  hammock,  he  flies  to  the  deck. 

5.  The  pigeons  fly  in  great  clouds  from  village  to  village. 

6.  The  kettle  sings,  the  cat  in  chorus  purrs. 

7.  They  robbed  the  wild  bees  of  their  honey,  and  chased  the 
deer  over  the  hills. 

8.  The  horses  neighed,  and  the  oxen  lowed. 

9.  She  pointed   to  the  web  of  beautifully  woven  cloth   in   the 
loom. 

10.  A  fire  blazed  brightly  on  the  hearth. 

11.  The  shadows  dance  upon  the  wall. 

12.  The  troops  marched  steadily  on. 

13.  When  breezes  are  soft  and  skies  are  fair, 
I  steal  an  hour  from  study  and  care. 

14.  Thus  the  night  passed.     The  moon  went  down;    the   stars 
grew  pale ;  the  cold  day  broke ;  the  sun  rose. 

EXERCISE  15 

Write  sentences  containing  the  following  words  used  {\)  as 
nouns ;  (2)  as  verbs:  — 

bark  walk  fear  sail  salt 

rock  look  dream  water  hope 

EXERCISE   16 

Write   sentences   containing   the  following  words   used  as 
the  subjects  of  verbs.      Underline  the  verbs :  — 

moon        iron  soldier  singer  wind 

courage     grocer  river  organ  bell 


l6  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   IX 

ADVERBS 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  words  that  show 
hoWy  when,  or  where  actions  were  performed :  — 

1 .  The  boat  moves  slowly. 

2.  He  always  spoke  the  truth. 

3.  The  child  stood  here. 

Give   the    verb    in   each    sentence,    and    tell    what   word 
modifies  its  meaning. 

A  word  that  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb  is  an  adverb. 
Sometimes  an  adverb  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
an  adjective;   as,  — 

It  is  very  cold. 

The  sleeve  is  too  short. 

Sometimes  an  adverb  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
another  adverb ;    as,  — 

The,  boat  moves  very  slowly. 
Do  not  walk  so  fast. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  that  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

EXERCISE   17 

Mention  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
what  each  modifies  :  — 

1.  The  bell  rang  sharply. 

2.  She  turned,  and  looked  back. 


ADVERBS  17 

3.  How  hard  a  lesson  it  is  to  wait ! 

4.  How  silently  the  snow  falls  ! 

5.  The  common  wild  birds  of  the  woods  were  everywhere. 

6.  Faster  and  faster  we  sped. 

7.  The  shower  soon  passed. 

8.  The  statement  is  perfectly  correct. 

9.  But  we  steadfastly  gazed  on  the  face  of  the  dead, 
And  we  bitterly  thought  of  the  morrow. 

10.   Catbirds  differ  greatly  in  vocal  talent. 
EXERCISE   18 

Write  (i)  five  sentences,  each  containing  an  adverb  modi- 
fying a  verb ;  (2)  three  sentences,  each  containing  an  adverb 
modifying  an  adjective ;  (3)  two  sentences ^  each  containing 
an  adverb  modifying  an  adverb. 

CHAPTER    X 

PREPOSITIONS 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  words  that  join 
nouns  or  pronouns  to  other  words :  — 

1.  They  sailed  up  the  river. 

2.  No  one  spoke  to  him. 

3.  The  clock  in  the  steeple  struck  three. 

4.  She  is  fond  of  music. 
« 

A  word  used  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  show  its  relation  to 

some  other  word  in  the  sentence  is  called  a  preposition ;  as,  — 
The  leaves  fell  to  the  ground. 


l8  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

The   noun    or   pronoun    used  with    a   preposition    in  this 
manner  is  called  its  object.     A  preposition  is  usually  placed 
before  its  object,  but  sometimes  it  follows  it;  as, — 
The  boat  is  on  the  shore.      What  are  you  looking  at? 

A  preposition  usually  joins  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  — 

(i)  A  verb;    as,  He  lived  by  the  river. 

(2)  An  adjective  ;  as.  They  are  ready  for  battle. 

(3)  A  noun ;   as.   It  is  a  package  of  letters. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  to 
show  its  relation  to  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

EXERCISE  19 

Mention  the  prepositiofis  in  the  following  sentences,  tell 
between  what  zvords  each  shows  a  relation,  and  name  its 
object :  — 

I.'   A  fair  little  girl  sat  under  a  tree. 

2.  The  dining  table  stood  in  the  centre  of  the  room. 

3.  The  boy  was  pleased  at  the  prospect  of  taking  a  long  journey. 

4.  At   midnight   I   was  aroused   by  the  tramp  of  horses'  hoofs 
in  the  yard. 

5.  The  habits  of  our  American  cuckoo  are  extremely  interesting. 

6.  Into  the  street  the  Piper  stept. 

7.  They  were  eager  for  the  contest. 

8.  Every  day  tlie  starving  poor 
Crowded  around  Bishop  Hatto's  door. 

9.  Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest,  when  summer  is  green,         , 
That  host  with  their  banners  at  sunset  were  seen. 

ID.       I  see  the  lights  of  the  village 

Gleam  through  the  rain  and  the  mist. 


PREPOSITIONS  19 

EXERCISE   20 

Tell  whether  the  italicized  ivords  in  the  following  sentences 
are  adverbs  or  prepositions,  giving  reasons  in  each  case  :  — 

T.  Is  your  employer  within  ? 

2.  The  work  will  be  done  within  a  week. 

3.  It  rolled  down  the  hill. 

4.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down. 

5.  A  voice  replied  far  up  the  height. 

6.  Lift  up  thine  eyes  unto  the  hills. 

7.  They  passed  by, 

8.  He  sat  by  the  well. 

9.  Your  hat  is  behind  the  door. 

10.  Do  not  lag  behind. 

11.  A  beautiful  picture  hung  above  the  altar. 

12.  The  eagle  soars  above. 

13.  The  multitude  went  before. 

14.  The  cat  lay  before  the  fire. 

15.  By  thirty  hills  I  hurry  down^ 

Or  slip  between  the  ridges, 
By  twenty  thorps,  a  little  town, 
And  half  a  hundred  bridges. 

EXERCISE  21 

(i)    Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  preposition  ex- 
pressing a  relation  between  a  verb  and  a  notm, 

(2)  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  preposition  ex- 
pressing a  relation  betzveen  two  nouns. 

(3)  Write   three   sentences,    each   containing  a  preposition 
expressing  d  relation  between  an  adjective  and  a  noun. 


20  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER  XI 

CONJUNCTIONS 

In  the  following  examples,  find  (i)  short  sentences  joined 
by  the  italicized  words ;  (2)  similar  words  or  groups  of  words 
that  are  so  joined :  — 

1.  The  walls  are  high,  and  the  shores  are  steep. 

2.  They  came,  but  they  did  not  stay. 

3.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down. 

4.  We  have  been  friends  together, 

In  sunshine  and  in  shade. 

A  word  that  connects  sentences  or  similar  parts  of  the 
same  sentence  is  a  conjunction.  A  conjunction  may  con- 
nect— 

(i)   Two  sentences;  as,  Be  just ^  and  fear  not. 

(2)  Two  phrases  1;  as,  Through  days  of  sorrow  and  of 
mirth. 

(3)  Two  words ;  as,  {a)  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man 
(nouns).  (b)  Her  voice  was  low  and  sweet  (adjectives). 
Sink  or  swim  (verbs),     {c)  Look  before  and  behind  (adverbs). 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  that  connects  sentences,  or  similar 
parts  of  the  same  sentence. 

EXERCISE  22 

Point  out  the  conjunctions  in  the  following  sentences^  and 
tell  what  they  connect:  — 

1.  The  floods  came,  and  the  winds  blew. 

2.  Freely  we  serve,  because  we  freely  love. 

1  See  page  27. 


CONJUNCTIONS  21 

3.  He  reached  the  well,  but  nobody  was  there. 

4.  The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 

And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

5.  She  must  weep,  or  she  will  die. 

6.  The  flames  danced  and  capered  in  the  polished  grate. 

7.  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my  heart 
and  my  hand  to  this  vote. 

8.  Three  years  she  grew  in  sun  and  shower. 

9.  The  waves  beside  them  danced ;   but  they 

Outdid  the  sparkling  waves  in  glee. 

10.    Blessed  are  the  merciful,  for  they  shall  obtain  mercy. 

EXERCISE  23 

Show  which  of  the  italicized  words  in  the  folloiving  sen- 
tences are  prepositions^  and  which  are  conjunctions :  — 

1.  They  came,  <^///  they  did  not  remain. 

2.  He  cares  for  nothing  dt^t  money. 

3.  All  the  family  were  present,  except  one  son. 

4.  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish. 

5.  1  have  not  heard  from  them  since  yesterday. 

6.  Since  you  are  here,  you  might  remain. 

7.  The  children  ran  after  the  procession. 

8.  He  came  after  the  exercises  had  closed. 

9.  The  building  will  be  completed  before  the  leaves  fall. 

10.  It  stands  before  the  fireplace. 

11.  Stay  here  until  I  come. 

12.  They  will  remain  abroad  until  November. 

13.  He  died  for  his  country. 

14.  Our  bugles  sang  truce ;  for  the  night-cloud  had  lowered 


22  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  24 


Write  sentences  containing  conjunctions  joining  (i)  two 
sentences ;  (2)  two  nouns ;  (3)  two  adjectives ;  (4)  two  verbs ; 
(5)  two  adverbs. 

CHAPTER   XII 

INTERJECTIONS 

What  words  in  the  following  sentences  form  no  part  of 
either  subject  or  predicate? 

1.  Alas  !  we  have  delayed  too  long. 

2.  Hark!  was  that  a  knock? 

3.  Hurrah  !  the  day  is  won. 

What  feeling  is  expressed  by  the  use  of  the  word  alas'i 
By  the  word  hark  ?     By  the  word  hurrah  ? 

A  word  used  to  indicate  sudden  or  intense  feeling  is 
called  an  interjection.     Interjections  may  express  — 

( 1 )  Joy ;    as,  hurrah  !  huzzah  ! 

(2)  Pain  or  suffering  ;    as,  ah  !  oh  !  alas  ! 

(3)  Surprise;    as,  ha!  lo  !  what! 

(4)  Disapproval ;    as,  jie  !  fudge  ! 

(5)  A  desire  to  call  attention;    as,  ho!  hey !  hark! 

etc.,  etc. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  used  to  indicate  sudden  or  intense 
feeling. 

EXERCISE  25 

Point  out  the  interjections  in  the  following  senteitces^  afid 
tell  what  they  express:  — 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH  23 

1.  Alas  !   I  am  undone. 

2.  Away  !   we  must  not  linger. 

3.  Hush  !   it  is  the  dead  of  night. 

4.  Halloo  !   who  stands  guard  here? 

5.  Ah!    whence  is  that  flame  which  now  glares  on  his  eye? 

6.  Oh  !    how  many  broken  bonds  of  affection  were  here  ! 

7.  But  hush  !   hark  !   a  deep  sound  strikes  like  a  rising  knell 

8.  Ha!   feel  ye  not  your  fingers  thrill? 

9.  Alas  !    they  all  are  in  their  graves. 

10.  Oh  !   the  boat  is  safe  enough. 

11.  O  look!   the  sun  begins  to  rise. 

12.  And  lo  !    from  the  assembled  crowd 
There  rose  a  shout,  prolonged  and  loud. 

EXERCISE  26 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  one  of  the  following 
ivords  nsed  as  an  inteijection :  — 


hark 

whew 

ho 

hurrah 

hush 

fie 

pshaw 

alas 

ah 

fudge 

CHAPTER   XIII 

REVIEW    OF.  THE    PARTS    OF    SPEECH 
EXERCISE  27 

Mention  some  of  the  different  uses  of  words  in  a  sentence. 
What   do  we  call  a  word    that  is  used  as   a   name  ?     A 
word  used  instead  of  a  noun  ?     A  word  that  asserts  ? 


24  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

How  many  classes  of  words  are  used  as  modifiers  ?  What 
are  these  classes  called  ?  How  does  the  adjective  differ 
from  the  adverb  ? 

How  many  kinds  of  connecting  words  have  been  consid- 
ered ?  What  are  they  called  ?  In  what  way  are  prepositions 
and  conjunctions  alike  ?     How  do  they  differ  ? 

Mention  a  class  of  words  not  grammatically  related  to 
the  other  words  in  a  sentence. 

How  many  kinds  of  words  have  been  considered  ? 

Words  are  divided  into  classes  according  to  their  uses  in 
sentences.  These  different  classes  of  words  are  called  parts 
of  speech.     The  parts  of  speech  are  :  — 

1.  The  Noun.  5.  The  Adverb. 

2.  The  Pronoun.  6.  The  Preposition. 

3.  The  Adjective.  7.  The  Conjunction. 

4.  The  Verb.  8.  The  Interjection. 

EXERCISE  28 

Distinguish  between  the  tises  of  the  italicized  words  in 
each  of  the  follozving  examples,  and  name  the  part  of  speech 
of  each  word:  — 

1.  Then  rushed  the  steed  to  battle  driven.  The  troops  ap- 
peared in  battle  array. 

2.  Farewell!  a  long  farewell,  to  all  my  greatness.  Not  a  sol- 
dier discharged  his  farewell  shot. 

3.  It  was  over  in  one  second.  Omit  the  second  stanza.  1 
second  the  motion. 

4.  He  is  as  good  as  he  is  strong.     Who  will  show  us  any  good? 


PARTS   OF   SPEECH  25 

5.  They  visited  a  far  country.     Far  flashed  the  red  artillery. 

6.  This  is  the  best  answer  that  was  given. 

He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 
All  things  both  great  and  small. 

7.  The  horse  is  a  fast  walker.  The  child  is  fast  asleep.  When 
ye  fast,  be  not,  as  the  hypocrites,  of  a  sad  countenance.  The 
shades  of  night  were  falling /(^i-/. 

8.  He  is  still  here.  Now  came  still  evening  on.  There  is  a 
good  fire,  still  the  room  is  cold. 

EXERCISE  29 

Name  the  part  of  speech  of  each  italicized  word  in  the  fol- 
lozving  sentences^  giving  in  each  case  a  reason  for  your  classifi- 
cation :  — 

1.  His  to-days  are  never  yesterdays. 

2.  The  lion  shall  lie  down  with  the  lamb. 

3.  As  I  looked  up,  I  saw  the  boat  before  me. 

4.  There  is  a  calm  for  those  who  weep. 

5.  The  laborer  is  worthy  of  his  hire. 

6.  The  good  south  wind  still  blew  behind, 

7.  It  is  not  finished  yet. 

8.  Swiftly,  swiftly  sailed  the  ship: 

Yet  she  sailed  softly  too. 

9.  Ere  I  go,  you  must  consent. 

10.  Think,  before  you  speak. 

11.  Still  waters  run  deep. 

12.  We  look  before  and  after. 

13.  The  down  train  is  late. 

14.  He  had  experienced  many  ups  and  downs  in  life. 


26  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

15.  Up  went  the  steps,  bang  went  the  door,  round  whirled  the 
wheels,  and  off  they  rattled. 

16.  We  talked  about  the  trees. 

17.  On  right,  on  left,  above,  below, 
Sprung  up  at  once  the  lurking  foe. 

18.  The  very  village  was  altered. 

19.  Arise,  take  up  thy  bed,  and  go  imto  thy  house. 

EXERCISE  30 

(i)  Write  sentences  containing  the  following  words  used 
as  nouns  :  — 

to-morrow  fear  paper  ring  America 

(2)  Write  sentences  containing  the  following  words  used 
as  verbs  : — 

stand  fear  paper  ring  water 

(3)  Write  sentences  containing  the  following  words  used 
as  adverbs :  — 

to-morrow  after  before  since  over 

(4)  Write  sentences  containing  the  follozving  words  used 
as  prepositions :  — 

till  before  after  over  for 

(5)  Write  sentences  cofttaining  the  following  words  used 
as  conjunctions :  — 

till  before  after  since  for 

To  the  Teacher.  —  Give  additional  exercises,  if  they  are  needed,  to  impress 
the  fact,  that  it  is  not  the  form  of  a  word,  but  its  use  in  a  sentence,  that 
determines  what  part  of  speech  the  word  is. 


CLAUSES  2; 

CHAPTER    XIV 

PHRASES 

In  the  following  examples,  find  combinations  of  words  used 
like  parts  of  speech  :  — 

1.  The  leader  is  a  courageous  man. 

2.  The  leader  is  a  man  of  courage, 

3.  What  did  you  see  there? 

4.  What  did  you  see  in  that  place? 

A  combination  of  words  performing  a  distinct  office  in  a 
sentence,  but  having  neither  subject  nor  predicate,  is  a  phrase. 

EXERCISE    31 

In  the  following  sentences,  state  the  use  of  each  italicized 
phrase:  — 

1.  The  cargo  of  the  ship  is  valuable. 

2.  There  groups  of  merry  children  played. 

3.  I  stand  upon  my  native  hills  again. 

4.  The  road  to  the  river  is  straight. 

5.  The  command  of  the  general  must  be  obeyed. 

6.  Two  officers  of  tlie  coinpany  were  killed  i7i  battle, 

7.  The  dress  of  the  fugiti%)e  betrayed  him. 

8.  The  ships  sailed  down  the  hay. 

9.  Let  us  go  f'ojn  this  place. 

10.    He  did  the  work  iji  a  satisfactory  manner, 

CHAPTER    XV 

CLAUSES 

Tell  how  many  assertions  are  made  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  and  name  the  subject  and  the  predicate 
in  each  assertion  :  — 


28  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

1.  When  the  signal  was  given,  the  boats  started. 

2.  The  building  was  condemned,  because  it  was  unsafe. 

3.  I  believe  that  he  is  honest. 

A  combination  of  words  performing  a  distinct  office  in  a 
sentence,  and  having  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  is  a  clause. 

A  clause  that  expresses  the  leading  or  principal  thought  of 
a  sentence  is  an  independent  or  principal  clause;  as  — 

They  trimmed  the  lamps  as  the  sun  went  down. 

A  clause  that  depends  upon  some  other  part  of  the  sentence 
for  its  full  meaning,  is  a  dependent  or  subordinate  clause;  as, — 

They  trimmed  the  lamps  as  the  sun  went  down. 

EXERCISE  32 

Find  the  principal  clauses  and  the  subordinate  clauses  i7i 
the  following  sentences^  and  tell  how  each  subordinate 
clause  is  used:  — 

1.  You  may  remain  where  you  are. 

2.  Speak  as  you  think. 

3.  If  our  cause  is  just,  we  shall  succeed. 

4.  What  his  decision  will  be  is  uncertain. 

5.  Remember  what  has  been  done  for  you. 

6.  She  listened  attentively  while  he  was  speaking. 

7.  When  the  fire  was  extinguished,  the  crowd  dispersed. 

8.  He  left  the  room  as  I  entered  the  door. 

9.  Learn  from  the  birds  what  food  the  thickets  yield. 
10.  Forgive  us  our  debts  as  we  forgive  our  debtors. 


Part    Second 


SUBDIVISIONS   OF  THE   PARTS   OF  SPEECH 
AND   INFLECTION 

CHAPTER   XVI 

CLASSES   OF   NOUNS 

I.     PROPER  AND   COMMON  NOUNS 

Point  out  in  the  following  sentences  (i)  the  nouns  that 
name  special  persons  or  things,  (2)  the  nouns  that  apply 
to  every  one  of   a  class  of   persons  or  things :  — 

1.  The  White  House  is  the  official  residenc^e  of  the  President  of 
the  United  States.  The  corner-stone  of  the  White  House  was  laid 
by  General  Washington. 

2.  Paris  is  called  the  finest  city  in  the  world. 

3.  Longfellow  is  the  most  popular  American  poet. 

A  name  that  belongs  to  an  individual  person  or  thing  is  a 
proper  noun;    as,    Clarence  y    New     Yorky     Thiers  day  y    Lake 


Proper  nouns  and  words  derived  from  them  begin  with 
capital  letters.  When  a  proper  noun  is  made  up  of  two  or 
more  words,  each  word  generally  begins  with  a  capital 
letter. 

29 


30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

A  name  that  applies  to  every  one  of  a  class  of  persons  or 
things  is  a  common  noun;  as,  boy,  city,  day,  lake, 

EXERCISE  33 

(i)  Write  sentences  containing  a  name  that  applies  to  every 
one  of  a  class  of  {a)  persons  ;  {b)  places;  {c)  b  nil  dings. 

(2)  Write  sentences  containing  t4ie  name  of  an  individual 
{a)  poet;  (b)  statesman;  (c)  city ;  (d)  country ;  (e)  lake. 

II.    COLLECTIVE  NOUNS 
Point  out  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences  that  name 
collections    of    persons    or   things,    and    tell   of   what   each 
collection  is  composed  :  — 

1.  The  speaker  was  afraid  to  face  the  audience. 

2.  The  Assembly  adjourned  at  twelve  o'clock. 

3.  There  is  no  flock,  however  watched  and  tended, 

But  one  dead  lamb  is  there.  —  Longfellow. 

4.  Are  fleets  and  armies  necessary  to  a  work  of  love  and  recon- 
ciliation ?  —  Patrick  Henry. 

A  noun  that  in  the  singular  number  applies  to  a  collection 
of  persons  or  things  is  a  collective  noun ;  as,  family,  jury, 
szuarm. 

Collective  nouns  are  usually  common ;  but  when  a  collec- 
tive noun  is  applied  to  an  individual  body,  as  in  the  second 
example  above,  it  is  proper. 

EXERCISE  34 
Write   sentences   containing    ivords    iised  to   name    a    col 
lection  of — 

ships  soldiers  sailors  wolves  sheep 

bees  thieves  buffaloes  fish  chickens 


CLASSES   OF  NOUNS  3 1 

III.    ABSTRACT  NOUNS 

Point  out  each  word  in  the  following  examples  that  is  the 
name  of  a  quality  or  condition  of  a  person  or  thing :  — 

1.  The  length  of  a  river. 

2.  The  bravery  of  the  soldier. 

3.  The  growth  of  the  plant. 

A  noun  that  is  the  name  of  a  quality,  action,  or  condition  of 
a  person  or  thing,  apart  from  the  person  or  thing  itself,  is  an 
abstract  noun ;  as,  goodness,  happiness. 

An  abstract  noun  that  is  the  name  of  an  action  is  some- 
times called  a  verbal  noun ;  as,  walking,  singing. 

Abstract  nouns  are  formed  — 

(i)  From  adjectives;  as,  brightness  from  bright;  honesty 
from  honest ;  patience  from  patient. 

(2)  From  verbs;  as,  invefttion  from  invent;  singing  irom 
sing. 

(3)  From  nouns ;  as  childhood  from  child;  knavery  from 
knave. 

EXERCISE  85 

Point  out  each  noun  in  the  folloiving  sentences,  and  state 
the  class  to  which  it  belongs :  — 

1.  The  child's  illness  is  of  an  alarming  nature 

2.  Wisdom  is  better  than  strength. 

3.  He  has  repented  of  his  folly. 

4.  The  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  has  conit;; 

5.  His  writing  was  illegiblCo 


32 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


6.  Charity  covereth  a  multitude  of  sins. 

7.  How  poor  are  they  that  have  not  patience ! 

8.  How  Uttle  they  knew  of  the  depth,  and  the  strength,  and 
the  intensity  of  that  feehng  of  resistance  to  illegal  acts  of  power, 
which  possessed  the  whole  American  people  1 

EXERCISE  36 

Write  the  following  words  in  columns^  and  opposite  each 
word  place  the  corresponding  abstract  nou7t :  — 


industrious 

weak 

bright 

warm 

honest 

temperate 

walk 

courageous 

true 

wise 

sweet 

judge 

beautiful 

just 

innocent 

proud 

conceal 

deceive 

high 

dull 

long 

please 

learn 

hard 

pure 

CHAPTER   XVII 


INFLECTION    OF    NOUNS  — NUMBER 


Some  v^ords  are  changed  in  form  to  denote  a  change  in 
their  meaning  or  their  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  as, 
booky  books  ;  boy^  boy's  ;  you,  your ;  write ,  wrote. 

The  change  in  the  form  of  a  word  to  denote  a  change  of 
meaning  or  relation  is  called  inflection. 

The  inflection  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  called  its  declen- 
sion ;  the  inflection  of  an  adjective  or  adverb  is  called  its 
comparison ;  the  inflection  of  a  verb  is  called  its  conjugation. 


INFLECTION  OF  NOUNS  33 

Tell  how  many  forms  each  noun  in  the  following  exam- 
ples has,  and  whether  each  form  denotes  one  or  more  than 
one :  — 


book 

watch 

fox 

piano 

potato 

books 

watches 

foxes 

pianos 

potatoes 

The  distinction  between  one  and  more  than  one  is  called 
number. 

The  form  which  denotes  one  thing  is  the  singular  number; 

as,  bird,  match,  leaf. 

The  form  which  denotes  more  than  one  thing  is  the  plural 
number;  as,  birds y  matches,  leaves. 

Number  Forms  of  Nouns 

Give  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns,  and  tell 
how  it  is  formed:  — 


bird 

canto 

chimney 

cuff 

boat 

piano 

day 

gulf 

trap 

solo 

key 

roof 

paper 

folio 

alley 

life 

I.  Nouns  regularly  form  the  plural  by  adding  5  to  the 
singular ;  as,  river,  rivers ;  halo,  halos ;  valley,  valleys ; 
chief,  chiefs. 

II.  Nouns  ending  in  a  hissing  sound  like  that  of  s,  x,  sh, 
ch,  and  z,  form  the  plural  by  adding  es  to  the  singular ;  as, 
gas,  gases ;  tax,  taxes ;  thrush^  thrushes ;  match,  matches ; 
topaz,  topazes. 


34 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  37 

Write  the  following  words  ifi  columns,  and  opposite  each 
word  write  its  plural  form  :  — 


battle 

tack 

marble 

bridge 

arch 

glass 

race^ 

rose 

brooch 

niche 

latch 

fish 

mesh 

prize 

hoe 

box 

larch 

lens 

ditch 

hedge 

chorus 

metal 

rush 

bush 

ice 

Which 

words  in 

the  list  above 

add 

es} 

III.  Most  nouns  ending  in  o  add  *  to  the  singular  to  form 
the  plural ;  some  add  e^ ;  and  a  few  add  either  5  or  e^. 

EXERCISE  38 

Form  the  plurals  of  the  following  words  by  adding  s  to 
the  singular:  — 

halo 

junto 

memento 

nuncio 

octavo 

The  plurals  of  bravo,  lasso,  mosquito,  and  ffiotfo  are  formed  by 
adding  either  s  or  es ;  as  bravos'^  or  bravoes ;  lassos  or  lassoes ; 
mosquitos  or  mosquitoes  ;  mottos  or  mottoes. 

EXERCISE  39 

Form  the  plurals  of  these  nouns  by  addiiig  es  to  the 
singular :  — 

1  Words  ending  in  silent  e  drop  the  final  e  when  es  is  added. 
^  The  form  that  is  preferred  is  placed  first. 


alto 

cuckoo 

banjo 

duodecimo 

cameo 

dynamo 

canto 

embryo 

chromo 

folio 

oratorio 

soprano 

piano 

stiletto 

portfolio 

trio 

quarto 

two 

solo 

tyro 

NUMBER 

35 

echo 

embargo 

negro 

tomato 

torpedo 

hero 

mulatto 

potato 

tornado 

veto 

The  plurals  of  buffalo,  cargo,  domino,  and  volcano  are  formed  by 
adding  either  es  or  s;  2.'^,  buffaloes  or  buffalos ;  cargoes  or  cargos ; 
dominoes  or  dominos  ;  volcanoes  or  volcanos. 

EXERCISE  40 

Form  the  plurals  of  eight  nouns  that  may  add  either  s  or 
eSj  placing  the  preferred  form  first. 

Give  the  ending  of  the  singular  nouns  in  the  follow- 
ing examples,  and  tell  how  their  plurals  are  formed :  — 

city  story  day  chimney 

cities  stories  days  chimneys 

IV.  Nouns  ending  in  /  preceded  by  a  vowel,  add  s  to 
the  singular,  to  form  the  plural ;  nouns  ending  in  /  preceded 
by  a  consonant,  change  /  to  ies ;  as  boy,  boys ;  chimney, 
chimneys  ;  city,  cities ;  lily  lilies. 


EXERCISE  41 

Write 

sentences  containing  the 

plurals   of  the  following 

words :  — 

- 

body 

colloquy  ^ 

berry 

jury                     alley 

cop/ 

soliloquy 

ferry 

journey               pulley 

daisy 

vanity 

lily 

mystery               duty 

fly 

buoy 

quay 

donkey                Marcy^ 

1  Qu  stands  for  kw,  hence  the  j>'  of  colloquy  and  soliloquy  is  really  not  preceded 
by  a  vowel  sound. 

2  Many  proper  names  do  not  follow  the  rule,  but  simply  add  s-,  as,  Henrys, 
Stacys. 


36  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

How  are  the  singular  nouns  in  the  following  examples 
changed  to  make  each  mean  more  than  one?  — 

proot  gulf  fife 

proofs  gulfs  fifes 

V.  Most  nouns  ending  in  f  or  fe  form  the  plural  by  adding  5 
to  the  singular ;  as,  roof,  roofs ;  safe,  safes. 

The  following  nouns  change  /  or  fe  to  ves :  — 

beef  knife  self  thief 

calf  leaf  sheaf  wharf  ^ 

elf  life  shelf  wife 

,  half  loaf  staffs  wolf 

EXERCISE  42 

Make  (i)  a  list  of  ten  7ioims,  ending  in  i  or  fe,  that  form 
their  phirals  by  the  addition  of  s  ;  and  (2)  a  list  of  ten  other 
nouns  that  form  their  plurals  in  ves. 

CHAPTER   XVni 

IRREGULAR  PLURALS  OF  NOUNS 

Tell  how  the  plurals  below  are  formed:  — 


man 

foot 

mouse 

ox 

child 

men 

feet 

mice 

oxen 

children 

VI.  Some  nouns  form  the  plural  by  changing  the  vowel  of 
the  singular  ;  as,  man,  men  ;  goose,  geese  ;  tooth,  teeth  ;  foot, 
feet ;  manse,  mice  (also  changes  s  to  c\ 

1  Staff  (a  stick  or  pole^,  staves  or  staffs;  staff  (a  body  of  officers),  staffs, 
^  Wharf,  wharves  or  wharfs. 


NUMBER  37 

In  a  few  nouns  the  plural  ends  in  en^;  as  ox,  oxen ;  brother , 
hrethren  ;  child,  children. 

Give  the  number  of  each  italicized  noun  in  the  following 
examples,  and  notice  its  form  :  — 

1.  A  sheep  before  her  shearers  is  dumb. 

2.  The  sheep  are  feeding  in  the  pasture. 

VII.  Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers ;  as, 

deer,  sheep,  swine. 

Other  nouns  which  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers 
are  brace,  dozen,  head,  pair,  and  yoke  when  used  after  numer- 
als, and  head,  sail,  cannon,  fish,  trout,  and  heathen,  when  used 
in  a  special  or  a  collective  sense. 

VIII.  Some  nouns  are  used  only  in  the  plural;    as, — 

aborigines        clothes        scissors        tidings         trousers 
assets  dregs  thanks  tongs  vitals 

IX.  Some  nouns  plural  in  form  are  now  generally  used  as 
singulars ;    as,  — 

amends    '         economics  measles  physics 

ethics  mathematics  news  ,    politics 

X.  Some  nouns  originally  singular  are  now  generally  used 
in  the  plural ;  as,  alms,  eaves,  riches. 

1  The  old  plural  kine  (  =  kyen)  is  still  used  in  poetry,  and  such  forms  as  eyen 
(eyes),  hosen  (hose),  and  shoon  (shoes)  are  found  in  several  dialects. 


38         •  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

XL   Some  nouns  have  two  plural  forms  differing  in  mean- 
ing;  as:  — 

brother,  brothers  (by  blood)  ;   brethren  (by  association). 

cannon,  cannons  (separately)  ;   cannon  (collectively). 

die,  dies  (stamps  for  coining)  ;   dice  (cubes  for  gaming). 

^•iti^  fishes  (separately);  fish  (collectively). 

genius,  geniuses   (men  of  genius)  ;  genii  (spirits). 

index,  indexes  (tables  of  reference)  ;  indices  (signs  in  algebra). 

penny,  pennies  (number  of  coins)  ;  pence  (amount  in  value). 


EXERCISE  43 

Write   sentences  containing  the  plurals    of  the  following 
nouns ^  and  tell  how  each  plural  is  formed:  — 


woman 

foot 

cannon 

shad 

deer 

tooth 

ox 

mouse 

fish 

genius 

sheaf 

enemy 

buoy 

crutch 

reef 

wharf 

colloquy 

envoy 
EXERCISE  44 

Ufe 

fife 

(i)  Tell  which   of  the  following  nouns   are  used  in   the 
singular^  and  which  in  the  plural. 

(2)    Write  sentences  illustrating  their  correct  use:  — 


alms 

eaves 

politics 

thanks 

amends 

dregs 

riches 

tidings 

aborigines 

mathematics 

scissors 

tongs 

clothes 

news 

shears 

victuals 

NUMBER 


39 


EXERCISE  45 

Make  a  list  of  the  following  no  mis  ^  and  write  opposite  each 
its  singular:  — 

pence  brethren  indices 

fishes  wharves  pennies 

women  staves  halves 

sheaves  dice  dies 


genu 

geniuses 

beeves 

brothers 

lives 

indexes 

cannons 

elves 

CHAPTER   XIX 


PLURALS    OF    COMPOUNDS 


Tell  how  each  plural  form  below  is  made  from  the  sin- 
gular :  — 

spoonful  brother-in-law  man-servant 

spoonfuls  brothers-in-law  men-servants 

XII.  Some  compound  nouns  form  the  plural  like  single  words, 
others  make  the  principal  word  plural,  and  a  few  change  both 
words;  as,  cupful,  cupfuls ;  mother-in-law,  mothers-in-law; 
woman-servant y  women-servants . 

EXERCISE  46 

Write  the  singulars  of  the  following  jwuns,  and  tell  how 
their  plurals  are  formed :  — 


Brahmans  * 

forget-me-nots 

merchantmen 

cupfuls 

Frenchmen 

mouse-traps 

dormice 

Germans 

Normans 

1  The  words  Brahman,  German,  Mussulman,  Ottoman,  and  talisman  are  not 
Compounds  of  man. 


40 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


Englishmen 

grandfathers 

stepsons 

fellow- servants 

handfuls 

talismans 

fishermen 

major-generals 

tooth-brushes 

aides-de-camp 

II 

fathers-in-law 

men-of-war 

attorneys-at-law 

hangers-on 

sisters-in-law 

commanders-in-chief 

knights-errant 
III 

sons-in-law 

knights-templars 

men-servants 

women-servants 

XIII.  When  a  title  is  prefixed  to  a  proper  name,  the  com- 
pound may  be  made  plural  by  changing  either  the  title  or  the 
name ;  as,  the  Misses  Brown,  the  Messrs.  Gray ;  or  the  Miss 
Brozuns,  the  Mr.  Grays. 

The  title  is  always  made  plural  when  it  is  used  with  two 
or  more  names  ;  as,  Messrs.  Stone  and  Wood  ;  Generals  Grant 
and  Lee. 

XIV.  Letters,  figures,  and  signs  add  the  apostrophe  (')  and 
s,  to  form  the  plural ;  as.  Dot  the  i's  ;  Cancel  the  j's ;  Write 
the  -i-'i"  on  a  straight  line. 


EXERCISE  47 

Writ^  the  plurals  of  the  following  compotmds :  — 

countryman  maid-servant  man-trap 

horseshoe  mother-in-law  toothpick 

four-per-cent  mouthful  attorney-general 

goose-quill  footboy  Miss  Hill 

journeyman  footman  Mr.  North 


NUMBER 


41 


CHAPTER   XX 

NOUNS    WITH    FOREIGN    PLURALS 

XV.   Many  nouns  taken  from  foreign  languages  retain  their 
original  plurals  ;  as  :  — 


Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

alumnus 

alumni 

genus 

genera 

analysis 

analyses    . 

index 

indices 

animalculum 

animalcula 

larva 

larvae 

antithesis 

antitheses 

memorandum 

memoranda 

apex 

apices 

nebula 

nebulae 

axis 

axes 

parenthesis 

parentheses 

basis 

bases 

phenomenon 

phenomena 

cherub 

cherubim 

radius 

radii 

crisis 

crises 

seraph 

seraphim 

datum 

data 

stratum  • 

strata 

erratum 

errata 

terminus 

termini 

focus 

foci 

thesis 

theses 

formula 

formulae 

vertebra 

vertebrae 

fungus 

fungi 

vertex 

vertices 

genius 

genii 

vortex 

vortices 

Some  foreign  words  which  are  in  common  use  form  the 
plural  in  the  usual  way,  often  with  a  difference  of  meaning ; 
as  formulas y  indexes ^  geniuses. 


EXERCISE  48 


(i)  Make  a  list  of  the  foregoing  singular  nouns  from  foreign 
languages,  and  opposite  each  write  from  memory  its  plural. 
(2)  Write  {a)  five  7iouns  that  are  used  only  in  the  plural ; 


42  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

(b)  two  nouns  plural  in  form  that  are  used  in  the  singular;. 

(c)  three  nouns  having  the  same  form  in  both  numbers. 

CHAPTER   XXI 

INFLECTION   OF   NOUNS  — GENDER 

Which  words  in  the  following  list  denote  males?  Which 
denote  females  ? 

man  father  host  man-servant 

woman  mother  hostess  maid-servant 

The  distinction  between  words  to  denote  sex  is  called 
gender. 

A  noun  that  denotes  a  male  is  of  the  masculine  gender; 

as,  man,  heir. 

A  noun  that  denotes  a  female  is  of  the  feminine  gender; 
as,  woman,  heiress. 

A  noun  that  may  denote  either  a  male  or  a  female  is  generally 
said  to  be  of  the  common  gender  ^ ;  as,  parent,  friend,  robin. 

A  noun  that  denotes  a  thing  neither  male  nor  female  is  of 
the  neuter  gender ;  as,  book,  sky,  joy. 

The  gender  of  nouns  is  distinguished  in  three  ways :  — 


(I)  By 

different  words;    as, - 

— 

VlASGULINE 

Feminine 

Masculine 

Feminine 

bachelor 

maid 

earl 

countess 

boy 

girl 

father 

mother 

brother 

sister 

gentleman 

lady 

buck 

doe 

hart 

roe 

^  Some  grammarians  do  not  recognize  common  gender. 


INFLECTION   OF   NOUNS 


43 


Masculine 

Feminine 

fvlASCULINE 

Feminine 

husband 

wife 

ram 

ewe 

king 

queen 

sir 

madam 

monk 

nun 

son 

daughter 

lord 

lady 

stag 

hind 

nephew 

niece 

uncle 

aunt 

papa 

mamma 

wizard 

witch 

(2)  By  different  endings.  The  chief  feminine  ending  is 
ess. 

Some  nouns  form  the  feminine  by  simply  adding  the 
suffix  ess  to  the  masculine ;  as,  — 


baron 

baroness 

Jew 

Jewess 

count 

countess 

lion 

honess 

deacon 

deaconess 

patron 

patroness 

heir 

heiress 

priest 

priestess 

host 

hostess 

shepherd 

shepherdess 

Other   nouns    shorten   the    ending   of    the   masculine,    or 
make  other  changes,  before  adding  ess ;    as,  — 


actor 

actress 

abbot 

abbess 

benefactor 

benefactress 

duke 

duchess 

enchanter 

enchantress 

emperor 

empress 

hunter 

huntress 

governor 

governess 

preceptor 

preceptress 

marquis 

marchioness 

tiger 

tigress 

master 

mistress 

waiter 

waitress 

negro 

negress 

A  few  other  feminine  endings,  such  as  ine,  a,  and  trix, 
appear  in  words  taken  from  foreign  languages ;  as,  — 


44 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


Masculine 

Feminine 

Masculine 

Feminine 

hero 

heroine 

infante 

infanta 

Joseph 

Josephine 

signor 

signora 

Paul 

Pauhne 

sultan 

sultana 

Augustus 

Augusta 

administrator 

administratrix 

czar 

czarina 

executor 

executrix 

don 

donna 

testator 

testatrix 

(3)  By  prefixing  or  annexing  words   indicating  the  sex ; 


as, 


Masculine 
man-servant 
men-singers 
he-goat 
cock-sparrow 
peacock 


Feminine 
maid-servant 
women-singers 
she-goat 
hen-sparrow 
peahen 


EXERCISE  49 


Make  a  list  of  all  the  masadine  nouns  nientio7ted  in  the 
foregoing  lists,  and  opposite  each  write  from  memory  the 
corresponding  feminine  noun. 

EXERCISE  50 

Point  out  the  masculine,  the  feminine,  and  the  neuter 
nouns  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  which  7iouns  may 
denote  either  males  or  females  :  — 

1.  We  learned  the  ways  of  the  fish,  the  birds,  the  bees,  the 
winds,  the  clouds,  the  flowers. 

2.  Night  closed  in,  but  still  no  guest  arrived. 

3.  Leaving  the  boatmen  at  the  camp,  I  spent  the  greater  part 
of  the  night  in  the  very  heart  of  a  jungle. 


INFLECTION   OF   NOUNS  45 

4.  Temperance  and  labor  are  the  two  best  physicians  of  man. 

5.  Though  Grandfather  was  old  and  gray-haired,  yet  his  heart 
leaped  with  joy  whenever  Httle  Alice  came  fluttering,  like  a  butterfly, 
into  the  room.  — Hawthorne. 

6.  1  have  had  playmates,  I  have  had  companions. 

—Charles  Lamb. 

7.  Brethren,  the  sower's  task  is  done.  — Bryant. 

8.  I  rise,  my  Lords,  to  declare  my  sentiments  on  this  most 
solemn  and  serious  subject  — Burke, 

9.  Little  Eflie  shall  go  with  me  to-morrow  to  the  green. 
And  you'll  be  there,  too,  mother,  to  see  me  made  the  Queen. 

—  Tennyson. 

10.  Brothers,  sisters,  husbands,  wives. 

Followed  the  Piper  for  their  lives.  — Robert  Browning. 

11.  The  lamps  shone  o*er  fair  women  and  brave  men.  — byron. 

12.  What  would  we  give  to  our  beloved  ? 
The  hero's  heart,  to  be  unmoved, 

The  poet's  star-tuned  harp,  to  sweep. 
The  patriot's  voice,  to  teach  and  rouse. 
The  monarch's  crown,  to  hght  the  brows?  — 

He  giveth  His  beloved  sleep.— E.  B.  Browning. 


CHAPTER    XXII 

INFLECTION    OF    NOUNS  — CASE 

Tell    the    subjects    of   the    verbs    in    the    following    sen 

tences :  — 

1.  The  boy  bought  a  watch. 

2.  An  officer  caught  the  thief. 

3.  Birds  build  nests. 


46  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

What  did  the  boy  buy  ?  Whom  did  the  officer  catch  ? 
What  do  birds  build  ? 

The  noun  or  pronoun  that  denotes  the  person  or  thing 
receiving  the,  action  expressed  by  a  verb  is  called  the  object 
of  the  verb. 

State  the  offices  of  the  italicized  words  in  the  following :  — 

1.  We  followed  the  shepherd's  dog. 

2.  The  horse's  bridle  is  broken. 

When  a  word  is  used  to  show  to  whom  or  to  what  some- 
thing belongs,  it  is  said  to  denote  possession. 

Find  in  the  following  sentences  a  noun  used  (i)  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb;  (2)  as  the  object  of  a  verb;  (3)  as  the 
object  of  a  preposition;  (4)  to  denote  possession: — ■ 

1.  The  boy  stood  by  the  door. 

2.  He  heard  his  father's  voice. 

3.  A  wave  upset  the  boat. 

The  relation  which  a  noun  or  pronoun  bears  to  some  other 
word  in  the  sentence  is  called  case. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the 
nominative  case  ;  as, — 

The  bell  rang.      /  hear  a  lark. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  show  possession  is  in  the  possess- 
ive case  ;  as,  — 

The  child's  eyes  are  blue.      She  is  my  friend. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  prepo- 
sition is  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  — 

They  launched  the  vessel.       Come  with  me. 


INFLECTION   OF   NOUNS  47 

How  many  case  forms  have  the  nouns  in  the  foregoing 
examples  ?  Which  one  is  indicated  by  inflection  ?  The 
possessive  case  of  nouns  is  the  only  one  that  has  a  spe- 
cial form. 

Nouns  are  inflected  for  number  and  for  the  possessive 
case. 

A  noun  is  said  to  be  declined  when  its  number  and  case 
forms  are  regularly  arranged;  as, — 


Declension  of  a 

Noun 

Singular 

Plural 

Nom, 

boy 

boys 

Pass. 

boy's 

boys' 

Obj. 

boy 

boys 

EXERCISE  61 

State  the  kind,  the  gender,  the  number,  and  the  case  of  the 
nouns  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  This  tree  stood  in  the  centre  of  an  ancient  wood, 

2.  The  waves  rush  in  on  every  side. 

3.  Grandfather's  chair  stood  by  the  fireside. 

4.  The  stranger  shook  his  head  mournfully. 

5.  Birds  have  wonderfully  keen  eyes. 

6.  He  shook  his  head,  shouldered  the  rusty  firelock,  and  with 
a  heart  full  of  trouble  and  anxiety  turned  his  steps  homeward. 

7.  Dark  lightning  flashed  from  Roderick's  eye.  — Scott. 

8.  When  the  rock  was  hid  by  the  surge's  swell. 
The  mariners  heard  the  warning  bell.  —  ^outhey. 

9.  The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep.  — Gray. 

10.   They  shook  the  depths  of  the  desert  gloom.  — hemans. 


48  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE  52 

(i)  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  noun  in  the 
nominative  case. 

(2)  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  nonn  in  the 
possessive  case. 

(3)  Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  noun  in  the 
objective  case. 

CHAPTER   XXIII 

POSSESSIVE   CASE 

Point  out  the  nouns  that  are  in  the  possessive  case,  and 
tell  how  each  possessive  is  formed :  — 

1.  She  knelt  by  the  lady's  side. 

2.  The  ladies'  gallery  is  closed. 

3.  Men's  voices  were  heard. 

(i)  Add  the  apostrophe  and  5  ('*)  to  a  singular  noun,  to 
form  the  possessive ;    as,  boy,  boys ;   man,  man's. 

The  s  is  sometimes  omitted  in  poetry  for  the  sake  of  the 
metre ;  and  it  is  also  omitted  in  a  few  words  where  too 
many  hissing  sounds  would  come  together ;  as,  for  con- 
science' sake ;    for  righteousness'  sake ;    for  Jesus'  sake. 

(2)  Add  the  apostrophe  (')  to  a  plural  noun  ending  in  s, 
to  -form  the  possessive ;    as,  boys,  boys' ;    ladies,  ladies'. 

(3)  Add  the  apostrophe  and  5  {'s)  to  a  plural  noun  not 
ending  in  s,  to  form  the  possessive ;  as,  men,  men's  ;  children, 
children's. 


POSSESSIVE   CASE  49 

The  possessive  sign  does  not  always  denote  possession. 
It  is  used  to  show  authorship,  origin,  kind,  etc. ;  as,  LoweWs 
poems ;   the  sun's  rays ;    mens  clothing. 

EXERCISE  53 

Point  out  the  nouns  in  these  sentences^  tell  how  each  is 
usedy  and  name  its  case :  — 

1.  The  lark's  song  rang  in  her  ears. 

2.  The  sound  of  horses'  hoofs  was  heard  in  the  distance. 

3.  The  scene  brought  to  mind  an  old  writer's  account  of  Christ- 
mas preparations. 

4.  The  incidents  of  the  Revolution  plentifully  supplied  the  bar- 
ber's customers  with  topics  of  conversation. 

5.  The  boy  rang  the  janitor's  bell. 

6.  A  burst  of  laughter  came  from  the  servants'  hall. 

7.  I  noted  but  two  warblers'  nests  during  the  season. 

8.  Vainly  the  fowler's  eye 

Might  mark  thy  distant  flight  to  do  thee  wrong.  — Bryant. 

9.  He  felt  that  his  little  daughter's  love  was  worth  a  thousand 
times  more  than  he  had  gained  by  the  Golden  Touch.  —  Hawthorne. 

EXERCISE  54 

Write  in  parallel  columns  the  possessive  singular,  and 
the  possessive  plural  forms  of  the  following  words :  — 

sister  woman  boy  girl 

mother  wife  soldier  *  son 

bee  bird  friend  teacher 

poet  child  man  judge 


so  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   XXIV 

POSSESSIVE    CASE    OF    COMPOUNDS 

Tell  how  the  possessive  case  is  formed  in  the  following 
compound  words  and  phrases  :  — 

1.  The  lieutenant-governor's  revery  had  now  come  to  an  end. 

2.  Bright  and  Dun's  window  is  filled  with  flowers. 

3.  They  are  reading  Green's  and  Macaulay's  histories. 

(4)  Compound  nouns,  words  in  apposition,^  and  phrases  re- 
garded as  compound,  add  the  possessive  sign  to  the  last  word 
only  ;  as,  my  bivther-in-law' s  house  ;  for  thy  servant  David's 
sake ;    somebody  else's  hat. 

(5)  Two  or  more  connected  nouns  implying  joint  possession 
add  the  possessive  sign  to  the  last  noun  only ;  as,  William 
aiid  Mary's  reign ;    Mason  and  Dixon  s  line. 

(6)  Each  of  two  or  more  connected  nouns  implying  sep- 
arate possession  must  take  the  possessive  sign ;  as,  Webster  s 
and    Worcester  s    dictionaries ;     Longfellow' s    and    Lowell's 

poems. 

Exercise  55 

Explain  the  possessives  in  the  following  examples :  — 

1.  In  my  Father's  house  are  many  mansions. 

2.  Hope  vanished  from  Fitz-James's  eye. —  Scott. 

3.  Enough,  enough ;  sit  down  and  share 

A  soldier's  couch,  a  soldier's  fare.  — Scott. 

4.  A  man's  first' care  should  be  to  avoid  the  reproaches  of  his 
own  heart.  — Addison. 

1  See  page  183. 


POSSESSIVE   CASE  51 

5.  This  happened  after  General  Washington's  departure  from 
Cambridge. 

6.  Many  a  young  man  ransacked  the  garret,  and  brought  forth 
his  great-grandfather's  sword,  corroded  with  rust  and  stained  with 
the  blood  of   King  Philip's  War.  —  Hawthorne. 

7.  The  rest  of  the  house  was  in  the  French  taste  of  Charles 
the  vSecond's  time.  — Irving. 

8.  The  grocers',  butchers',  and  fruiterers'  shops  were  thronged 
with  customers.  —  i  rving. 

9.  Hither  they  came,  from  the  cornfields,  from  the  clearing  in 
the  forest,  from  the  blacksmith's  forge,  from  the  carpenter's  work- 
shop, and  from  the  shoemaker's  seat.  —  Hawthorne. 

10.  Let  all  the  ends  thou  aim'st  at  be  thy  country's, 
Thy  God's,  and  truth's.  — Shakespeare. 

11.  What  good  woman  does  not  laugh  at  her  husband's  or 
father's  jokes  and  stories  time  after  time?  — Thackeray, 

12.  These  are  Clan- Alpine's  warriors  true.  — Scott, 

13.  I  dined  with  a  party  of  gentlemen  at  my  friend  Mr.  James 
Russell  Lowell's.  — Holmes. 

14.  If  to  do  were  as  easy  as  to  know  what  were  well  to  do, 
chapels  had  been  churches,  and  poor  men's  cottages  princes'  pal- 
aces. —  Shakespeare. 

15.  The  groves  were  God's  first  temples.  —  Bryant. 

EXERCISE  66 

(l.)  Write  five  sentences^  each  containing  connected  nouns 
denoting  joint  possession. 

(2.)  Write  five  sentences^  each  containing  connected  nouns 
denoting  separate  possession. 


52  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   XXV 

SUBSTITUTE    FOR    THE    POSSESSIVE    INFLECTION 

Possession  is  sometimes  indicated  by  the  objective  case 
with  the  preposition  of ;  as,  The  voice  of  the  speaker^  for 
the  speaker's  voice. 

This  form  is  generally  used  in  speaking  of  things  with- 
out  life;  as,  The  lid  of  the  box ;  the  bank  of  the  river. 

This  form  is  preferred  also  in  speaking  of  persons,  when 
the  possessive  form  would  be  ambiguous  or  awkward ;  as, 
The  wife  of  one  of  my  brothers. 

When  a  thing  is  personified,^  the  possessive  sign  is  gen- 
erally used,  particularly  by  the  poets ;  as,  — 

Go  forth,  under  the  open  sky,  and  list 
To  Nature's  teachings.—  Bryant. 

Certain  words  and  phrases  denoting  a  period  of  time 
take  the  possessive  case  also ;  as,  A  day's  journey ;  a 
week's  vacation ;  six  months''  interest. 

Of  is  sometimes  used  before  the  possessive  form  of  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  making  a  sort  of  double  possessive ;  as, 
A  cousin  of  Richard' s ;  a  friend  of  mine, 

EXERCISE  57 

Explain  fully  the  case  of  each  noun  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  point  out  the  examples  in  which  possession  is 
indicated  by  the  objective  case  with  the  preposition  of:  -  >- 

1  When  an  inanimate  thing  has  ascribed  to  it  the  attributes  of  a  person,  it  is 
said  to  be  personified. 


HOW   TO   PARSE   NOUNS  53 

1.  I  flew  to  the  pleasant  fields  traversed  so  oft 

In  life's  morning  march,  when  my  bosom  was  young, 

—  Campbell. 

2.  He  has  not  learned  the  lesson  of  life  who  does  not   every 
day  surmount  a  fear.  —  Emerson. 

3.  The  trade  of  America  had  increased  far  beyond  the  specu- 
lations of  the  most  sanguine   imaginations.  — Burke. 

4.  The  poetry  of  earth  is  never  dead.  — keats. 

5.  Either   measure   would    have   cost    no    more    than   a    day's 
debate.  —  burke. 

6.  They  came  without  a  moment's  delay. 

7.  She  has  had  two  years'  experience. 

8.  He  likes  neither  winter's  snow  nor  summer's  heat. 

9.  The  city  was  taken  after  a  ten  years'  siege. 
10.   The  chieftain's  pride  was  humbled. 

EXERCISE  58 

Select  from  your  Reader  — 

(i)  Five  sentences  in  which  possession  is  indicated  by  the 
objective  case  with  the  preposition  of. 

(2)  Five  other  sentences  in  which  possession  is  indicated  by 
the  use  of  the  possessive  sign. 

CHAPTER   XXVI 

HOW  TO    PARSE    NOUNS 

To  parse  a  word  is  to  describe  it  by  stating  (i)  the 
part  of  speech  it  is ;  (2)  its  inflection,  if  it  has  any ; 
and  (3)  its  syntax,  or  grammatical  relation  to  other  words 
in  the  sentence. 


.54  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

To  parse  a  noun,  state  — 

(i)  Its  class.  (3)  Its  gender. 

(2)  Its  number.  (4)  Its  case. 

(5)  Its  syntax  or  construction  —  use  in  the  sentence. 

Example.  —  His  eyes  sparkled  with  joy  when  he  heard 
J  as  071  s  reply. 

1.  Eyes  is  a  noun,  common,  plural  number,  neuter  gender,  and 
nominative  case  —  subject  of  the  verb  spa7'kled} 

2.  Joy  is  a  noun,  abstract,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and 
objective  case  —  object  of  the  preposition  with. 

3.  Jason's  is  a  noun,  proper,  singular  number,  masculine  gender, 
and  possessive  case  —  depending  upon  the  noun  7-eply. 

4.  Reply  is  a  noun,  common,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and 
objective  case  —  object  of  the  verb  heard. 

EXERCISE  59 

Pai'se  the  7touns  in  the  followifig  se7tte7ices :  — 

1.  The  lights  of  the  church  shone  through  the  door. 

2.  Nell  and  her  grandfather  rose  from  the  ground,  and  took 
the  track  through  the  wood.  — Dickens. 

3.  The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep.  — Gray. 

4.  I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thirsting  flowers.  —  Shelley. 

5.  Strong  reasons  make  strong  actions.  — Shakespeare. 

6.  I  stood  in  Venice,  on  the  Bridge  of  Sighs. —  byron. 

^  When  the  pupil  is  familiar  with  the  different  steps,  a  briefer  method  of 
parsing  may  be  followed  ;  thus,  Eyes  is  a  noun,  common,  plural,  neuter,  nomi- 
native, subject  of  the  verb  sparkled. 


REVIEW   OF   NOUNS  55 

7.  I  now  bade  a  reluctant  farewell  to  the  old  hall.  — Irving 

8.  A  great  deal  of  talent  is  lost  in  the  world  for  the  want  of 
a  little  courage.  —  Sydney  Smith. 

9.  The  eyes  of  the  sleepers  waxed  deadly  and  chill.  — Byron. 

10.  Is  Saul  also  among  the  prophets? —Bible. 

11.  The  doe  lifted  her  head  a  little  with  a  quick  motion,  and 
turned  her  ear  to  the  south.  — c.  D.  Warner. 

12.  They  had  now  reached  the  road  which  turns  off  to  Sleepy 
Hollow ;  but  Gunpowder,  who  seemed  possessed  with  a  demon, 
instead  of  keeping  up  it,  made  an  opposite  turn,  and  plunged 
headlong  down  hill  to  the  left.  — Irving. 

13.  'Tis  the  middle  of  night  by  the  castle  clock, 
And  the  owls  have  awakened  the  crowing  cock. 

—  Coleridge. 

14.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath.  —  Bible. 

15.  Some  have  even  learned  to  do  without  happiness,  and  in- 
stead thereof  have  found  blessedness. —  Carlyle. 

16.  The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea. —  Gray. 

17.  Reading  maketh  a  full  man,  conversation  a  ready  man,  and 
writing  an  exact  man.  — Bacon. 

18.  Charity  beareth  all  things,  beJieveth  all  things,  hopeth  all 
things,  endureth  all  things.  —  Bible. 


CHAPTER   XXVII 

REVIEW   OF   NOUNS 
EXERCISE  60 

What  is  a  noun  ?      Mention  the  two  leading  classes  ot 
nouns  and  tell  the  difference  between  these  classes.     What 


$6  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

is  a  collective  noun  ?  What  is  an  abstract  noun  ?  State 
three  ways  in  which  abstract  nouns  are  formed,  and  illus- 
trate by  examples. 

What  is  meant  by  inflection  ?  To  what  do  the  inflections 
of  nouns  relate  ? 

How  do  most  nouns  form  the  plural  ?  Mention  other 
ways  in  which  nouns  form  their  plurals,  and  illustrate  by 
example. 

Give  the  plural  of  watc/i,  piano,  potato,  donkey,  lily,  loaf, 
roof,  tooth,  ox,  sheep. 

Distinguish  between  the  meaning  of  brothers  and  brethren; 
fishes  and  fish  ;  indexes  and  indices ;  pe?i7iies  and  pence. 

State  three  ways  in  which  compound  nouns  form  the 
plural,  and  illustrate  by  examples. 

Give  the  plural  of  larva,  alnmnus,  axis,  beau,  bandit, 
seraph.  Why  do  these  nouns  not  form  their  plurals  in  the 
usual  way? 

What  is  gender.?  How  many  genders  are  there,  and 
what  does  each  denote  1  Mention  three  ways  in  which  the 
gender  of  nouns  is  distinguished. 

Give  the  feminine  nouns  corresponding  to  the  nouns  hart, 
monk,  nepheWy  host,  master,  gove^'nor^  executor,  hero,  man- 
servant. 

Tell  the  gender  of  each  of  the  following  nouns,  if  it  has 
any :  woman,  heiress,  landlord,  doe,  waitress,  czar,  admijtis- 
tratrix,  guest,  friend,  witness,  cousin,  sun,  wind,  table,  house. 

How  many  cases  have  nouns.!*  What  determines  the  case 
of  a  noun }  Which  case  has  a  special  form }  How  is  the 
possessive  case  of  nouns  formed }      How  is  the  possessive 


CLASSES   OF   PRONOUNS  57 

formed  in  compound  words  and  phrases  ?  How  may  pos- 
session be  indicated  without  the  possessive  form  ?  When 
is  this  way  preferable  ? 

CHAPTER   XXVIII 

CLASSES   OF   PRONOUNS 
L     PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

Point  out  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
which  denote  the  person  speaking,  which  the  person  spoken 
to,  and  which  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of :  — 

1.  I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey. 

2.  You  will  be  surprised  when  you  read  the  report. 

3.  He  requested  that  we  should  be  present. 

4.  Buy  the  truth,  and  sell  it  not. 

A  pronoun  that  shows  by  its  form  whether  it  denotes 
the  person  speaking,  the  person  spoken  to,  or  the  person 
or  thing  spoken  of,  is  a  personal  pronoun. 

A  pronoun  that  denotes  the  person  speaking  is  in  the 
first  person ;  as,  /,  we. 

A  pronoun  that  denotes  a  person  spoken  to  is  in  the 
second  person ;    as,  thou,  ye,  you. 

A  pronoun  that  denotes  a  person  or  a  thing  spoken  of 
is  in  the  third  person ;    as,  he,  she,  it,  they. 

Person  is  that  distinction  of  pronouns  which  denotes 
the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to,  or  the  person  or  thing 
spoken  of. 


S8  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Nouns  have  no  forms  to  distinguish  person ;  but  a  noun  is 
sometimes  said  to  be  of  the  first  person  when  it  is  in 
apposition^  with  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person,  and  of  the 
second  person  when  it  is  in  apposition  with  a  pronoun  of 
the  second  person,  or  when  it  is  used  in  address;    as, — 

'Tis  I,  Hamlet  the  Dane.  (First  person.) 
Thou,  Lord,  seest  me.  (Second  person.) 
O  death,  where  is  thy  sting?     (Second  person.) 

Declension  of  the  Personal  Pronouns 

first  person 

Singular  Plural 

Nom.     I  Nom.     we 

Poss»      my,  mine  Poss.      our,  ours 

Obj.       me  Obj.       us 

The  plural  form  we  (our,  ours,  us)  is  sometimes  used 
vaguely  for  people  in  general ;    as,  — 

The  world  is  too  much  with  us;   late  and  soon, 
Getting  and  spending,  we  lay  waste  our  powers. 

—  Wordsworth. 

The  form  we  is  frequently  used  by  editors  and  authors, 
when  referring  to  themselves;   as, — 

We  have  remarked  elsewhere  on  this  portrait. 

We    is    also    used    by   kings    and    some    other    rulers   in 
issuing  proclamations  and  giving  orders ;    as,  — 

You  have  good  leave  to  leave  us :   when  we  need 
Your  use  and  counsel,  we  shall  send  for  you. 

—  Shakespeare,  Benry  IV, 
^  See  page  183. 


CLASSES   OF   PRONOUNS  59 

SECOND    PERSON 

Singular  Plural 

Nom.    thou  Nom.  ye,  you 

Poss,     thy,  thine  Poss,  your,  yours 

Obj.       thee  Obj.  you 

Thou^  the  second  person  singular,  is  no  longer  in  common 
use.     It  is  now  chiefly  used  in  prayer  and  in  poetry  ;  as,  — 

Withhold  not  thou  thy  tender  mercies  from  me. 

I  see  in  thy  gentle  eyes  a  tear ; 

They  turn  to  me  in  sorrowful  thought ; 
Thou  thinkest  of  friends,  the  good  and  dear, 

Who  were  for  a  time,  and  now  are  not. —  Bryant. 

The  pronoun  you  is  used,  in  ordinary  speech,  in  the  place 
of  thoti^  whether  one  or  more  than  one  person  is  addressed. 
It  is  plural  in  form,  and  takes  a  plural  verb ;  as,  — 

You  are  merry,  my  lord. —  Shakespeare. 

You  are  noC  wood,  you  are  not  stones,  but  men.  —  Shakespeare. 


THIRD 

PERSON 

Singular 

Plural 

Masc. 

Fern, 

Neut. 

Masc,  Fern.,  or  Neut. 

Nom. 

he 

she 

it 

they 

Poss. 

his 

her,  hers 

its 

their,  theirs 

Obj, 

him 

her 

it 

them 

The  pronoun  of  the  masculine  gender  is  generally  used 
to  refer  to  u  noun  which  may  denote  a  person  of  either 
sex;  as, — 

Each  pupil  must  provide  his  own  material. 


6o  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

The  pronoun  of  the  masculine  gender  is  also  used  in 
referring  to  animals  or  things  that  are  supposed  to  possess 
masculine  qualities,  and  the  pronoun  of  the  feminine  gender 
is  used  in  referring  to  animals  or  things  to  which  feminine 
qualities  are  attributed ;    as,  — 

The  eagle  soars  above  his  nest. 
'Earth,  with  her  thousand  voices,  praises  God. —Coleridge. 

The  pronoun  of  the  neuter  gender  is  often  used  to  refer 
to  animals  or  to  young  children,  in  cases  where  the  sex  is 
not  considered ;  as,  — 

The  deer  raised  its  head. 
The  infant  knew  //j-name. 

The  pronoun  it  is  also  used  as  the  grammatical  subject  of 
a  verb  which  is  followed  by  the  real  or  logical  subject ;  as,  — 

//  is  useless  to  deny  the  fact. 

It  is  used  as  an  impersonal  subject  when  the  meaning 
intended  is  expressed  or  implied  by  the  verb  itself ;  as,  — 

//  rains.  //  snows. 

//  is  sometimes  used  as  an  impersonal  or  indefinite  object ; 

as,  — 

Come  and  trip  it  as  you  go. 

They  lord  //  over  us. 

The  possessive  forms  my,  thy^  heVy  our ^  your,  and  their  are 
used  before  the  nouns  they  modify,  and  the  forms  mine,  thine, 
hers,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs  are  used  after  the  noun  ;   as,  — 

My  sister,  but  sister  mine. 

This  is  my  book.  The  book  is  mine. 


CLASSES   OF  PRONOUNS  6l 

The  possessive  forms  of  the  pronoun  are  often  called  pos- 
sessive adjectives. 

Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  used  before  their  nouns, 
provided  the  nouns  began  with  a  vowel  sound;  as, — 

Bow  down  thine  ear.     I  will  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  hills. 

This  usage  may  still  be  observed  in  our  English  Bible 
and  in  poetry. 

EXERCISE  61 

In  the  following  sentences,  explain  the  special  uses  of  the 
italicized  pronouns :  — 

1.  Every  member  is  expected  to  do  his  part. 

2.  The  child  closed  its   eyes. 

3.  The  camel  kneels  to  receive  its  burden. 

4.  How  glorious,  through  his  depths  of  light, 

Rolls  the  majestic  sun  ! 

5.  The  deer  left  her  dehcate  footprint  in  the  soft  mould. 

6.  The  bear  broke  away  from  his  keeper. 

7.  The  sea  is  mighty,  but  a  mightier  sways 

His  restless  billows. 

8.  The  merry  lark,  he  soars  on  high. 

No  worldly  thought  o'ertakes  him  ; 
He  sings  aloud  to  the  clear  blue  sky, 

And  the  daylight  that  awakes  him. 
As  sweet  a  lay,  as  loud,  as  gay, 

The  nightingale  is  trilling ; 
With  feeling  bliss,  no  less  than  his, 

Her  little  heart  is  thrilling.  —  hartley  CoLERmcE. 

9.  //is  one  thing  to  be  well  informed,  /*/  is  another  to  be  wise. 
10.   Thy  mistress  leads  thee  a  dog's  life  of  //. 


62  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

11.  //is  said  that  he  will  speak. 

12.  They  had  to  foot  //  to  the  station. 

13.  Agree  with  thine  adversary  quickly. 

14.  And  now  there  came  both  mist  and  snow, 

And  //  grew  wondrous  cold.— Coleridge. 

CHAPTER   XXIX 

COMPOUND    PERSONAL  PRONOUNS 

Tell  how  the  italicized  pronouns  in  the  following  sen 
tences  are  formed,  and  how  each  is  used :  — > 

1.  The  boy  hurt  himself. 

2.  We  often  deceive  ourselves, 

3.  I  myself  heard  the  remark. 

The  pronouns  my,  our,  thy,  your,  him,  her,  it,  and  them 
are  used  with  self  or  selves  to  form  compound  personal 
pronouns ;    thus,  — 

COMPOUND   PERSONAL    PRONOUNS 

Singular  Plural 

First  Person.        myself  ourselves 


Second  Person, 

yourself 
'  himself 

yourselves 

Third  Person. 

herself 
itself 

themselves 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  used  for  emphasis 
in  the  nominative  and  the  objective,  either  in  apposition 
with  a  noun  or  pronoun  or  alone ;   as,  — ■ 


COMPOUND   PERSONAL  PRONOUNS  63 

I  myself  longed  to  go. 

Then  rest  thee  here  till  dawn  of  day; 
Myself  yf\A  guide  thee  on  thy  way.  —  scott. 

Here  we  met  the  poet  himself. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  also  used  in  the 
objective  case  as  reflexives,  that  is,  as  objects  denoting  the 
same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the  verb;   as, — 

He  hid  himself  from  his  friends. 
I  let  myself  down  with  a  rope. 

Formerly  the  simple  personal  pronoun  was  used  reflex- 

ivcly;   as, — 

Now  I  lay  me  down  to  sleep. 

This  usage  is  now  rare,  except  as  an  indirect  object;  as, — 
I  have  bought  me  a  new  hat. 

EXERCISE  62 

Tell  which  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  are  used 
emphatically  and  which  reflexively :  — 

1.  A  house  divided  against  itself  cannot  stand. 

2.  He  himself  was  not  the  author  of  the  article. 

3.  We  found  ourselves  in  an  absolutely  French  region. 

4.  He  bowed  to  the  audience  and  then  seated  himself. 

5.  The  book  itself  could  hardly  be  called  a  novel. 

6.  They  interested  themselves  in  the  sports  of  the  children. 

7.  I  myself  longed  to  cut  free  from  prescribed  bondage. 

8.  Thus  influenced,  I  conquered  myself  in  a  single'  evening, 
and  lost  my  shyness  forever. 

9.  Th^se  remarks  helped  me  to  justify  to  myself  that  early 
choice. 


64  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   XXX 

CLASSES   OF   PRONOUNS— Con^nued 
II.   ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS 

Which  of  the  italicized  words  below  are  used  as  adjec- 
tives ?     Which  are  used  as  pronouns  ? 

1.  Many  tickets  were  sold. 

2.  Many  were  unable  to  secure  seats. 

3.  Look  at  this  clock. 

4.  This  is  sold. 

Certain  words  can  be  used  to  limit  nouns  or  to  stand 
for  nouns.  When  such  words  limit  nouns,  they  are  adjec- 
tives ;  when  they  stand  for  nouns  they  are  adjective  pra 
nouns.  Sometimes  there  is  a  difference  of  form;  as,  no 
(adj.),  none  (pro.);    other  (adj.),  others  (pro.). 

Adjective  pronouns  are  sometimes  divided  into  the  following 
classes :  — 

(i)  Demonstrative  pronouns,  those  pointing  out  the  things  to 
which  they  relate;  as,  this  (plural  these),  that  (plural  those). 

(2)  Distributive  pronouns,  those  relating  to  persons  or  things 
considered  separately;  as,  each,  either,  neither. 

(3)  Reciprocal  pronouns,  those  expressing  a  mutual  or  reciprocal 
relation  ;  as,  each  other,  one  another. 

They  feared  each  other  (that  is,  each  feared  the  other). 
They  assisted  one  another   (that  is,  each  one  of  them   assisted 
another) . 


CLASSES   OF   PRONOUNS  65 

(4)  Indefinite  pronouns,  those  not  specifying  any  particular  indi- 
vidual or  thing ;  as,  all,  another^  any^  both,  few,  many,  none,  one, 
other,  several,  some. 

Some  adjective  pronouns  are  inflected  for  number  and 
case.  Thus,  this  and  that  have  the  plural  forms  tJiese  and 
those;  one  and  other  have  plural  and  possessive  forms ;  and 
either  and  another  have  a  form  for  the  possessive  singular. 

EXERCISE  63 

Tell  whether  the  italicized  ivords  in  the  following  sen- 
tences are  adjectives  or  pronouns,  giving  reaso7ts  in  each 
case  :  — 

1.  Many,  alas!   had  fallen  in  battle.— Hawthorne. 

2.  There  is  a  calm  for  those  who  weep. —j.  Montgomery. 

3.  All  are  architects  of  fate, 

Working  in  these  walls  of  time; 
Some  with  massive  deeds  and  great. 

Some  with  ornaments  of  rhyme.  — Longfellow. 

4.  Any  life  that  is  worth  living  must  be  a  struggle. 

—  Dean  Stanley. 

5.  The   man   deserving   the  name  is  one  whose  thoughts  and 
exertions  are  for  others  rather  than  for  himself.  —  Sir  Walter  Scon-. 

6.  All  men  think  all  men  mortal  but  themselves.— Young. 

7.  Men  at  some  time  are  masters  of  their  fate.  — Shakespeare. 

8.  This  was  the  noblest  Roman  of  them  all. —Shakespeare. 

9.  My  worthy  friend  Sir  Roger  is  one  of  those  who  is  not  only 
at  peace  with  himself,  but  beloved  and  esteemed  by  all  about  him. 

—  Addison. 
ID.   It  is  one  thing  to  be  well  informed;    it  is  another  to  be 
wise.  —Robertson. 


^^  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

11.  We  too  seldom  think  how  much  we  owe  to  those  formidable 
savages.  —John  Fiske. 

12.  Few  shall  part  where  many  meet. —Campbell. 

13.  To  know 

That  which  before  us  hes  in  daily  hfe 
Is  the  prime  wisdom.  — Milton. 

EXERCISE   64 

Cofistruct  sentences   containing   the  following   words  tised 
{\)  as  adjectives;  (2)  as  pronoims :  — 


both 

each 

few 

several 

these 

neither 

none 

many 

that 

other 

CHAPTER   XXXI 

CLASSES   OF   PRONOUNS  —  Continufd 
III.     RELATIVE   PRONOUNS 

Tell  how  many  assertions  are  made  in  each  of  the  fol- 
lowing sentences,  read  the  principal  statement,  and  state 
the  office  of   the  italicized  part:  — 

1.  We  found  a  guide,  who  answered  our  questions. 

2.  The  wind,  which  rose  suddenly,  had  now  ceabcd. 

3.  They  that  seek  wisdom  will  be  wise. 

Which  words  in  the  dependent  clauses  above  refer  to 
preceding  nouns,  and  how  are  the  dependent  clauses  joined 
to  the  independent  clauses } 

A  pronoun  that  refers  or  relates  to  a  noun  or  another  pro- 
noun, and  joins  to  it  a  dependent  clause,  is  a  relative  pronoun. 


CLASSES    OF   PRONOUNS  6/ 

The  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  a  relative  pronoun  refers 
or  relates  is  called  its  antecedent,  because  the  antecedent 
usually  precedes  the  pronoun ;   as,  — 

What  is  that  sound  which  now  bursts  on  his  ear? 
He  who  would  be  great  in  the  eyes  of  others    must   first  learn 
to  be  nothing  in  his  own. 

The  simple  ^relative  pronouns  are  who^  which^  that^  and 
what. 

EXERCISE  65 

Point  out  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences^ 
name  their  antecedents^  and  tell  what  the  pronouns  con- 
nect :  — 

1.  This  was  a  signal  to  the  patriots,  who  instantly  despatched 
SM'ift  messengers  to  rouse  the  country. 

2.  We  made  preparations  for  our  journey,  which  lay  through 
mountainous  regions. 

3.  They  were  accompanied  by  some  Indians,  who  were  skilful 
divers. 

4.  They  saw  nothing  more  valuable  than  a  curious  sea-shrub, 
which  was  growing  beneath  the  water. 

5.  He  that  filches  from  me  my  good  name 
Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him, 
And  makes  me  poor  indeed. —Shakespeare. 

6.  In  the  centre  of  the  wood  stood  an  enormous  tuhp  tree, 
which  towered  like  a  giant  above  all  the  other  trees  of  the 
neighborhood. 

7.  The  general,  who  was  on  horseback,  ordered  the  troops  to  halt. 

8.  They  have  taken  forts  that  military  men  said  could  not  be 
taken. 


68  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

9.   They  that  have  done  this  deed  are   honorable. 

The  flame  that  lit  the  battle's  wreck 
Shone  round  him  o'er  the  dead. 

11.  Is  it  the  wind  that  moaneth  bleak? 

12.  It  is  indeed  impossible  to  kill  a  weed,  which  the  soil  has 
a  natural  disposition  to  produce. 

CHAPTER   XXXII 

USE   OF    RELATIVE    PRONOUNS 

W/io  is  usually  applied  to  persons;  as, — 

Hail  to  the  chief  w/w  in  triumph  advances.  ~  Scott. 
Old  Kasper  took  it  from  the  boy, 
JV/io  stood  expectant  by.  —  Southey. 
Can  this  be  she, 
The  lady,  wko  knelt  at  the  old  oak  tree  ?  —  Coleridge. 

Sometimes,  particularly  in  the  description  of  individual 
traits  or  acts,  w/io  refers  to  animals  ;  as,  — 

Twice  have  the  crow-blackbirds  .  attempted  a  settlei.ient  in  my 
pines,  and  twice  have  the  robins,  who  claim  a  right  of  preemption, 
so  successfully  played  the  part  of  border-ruffians  as  to  drive  them 
away. —Lowell. 

In  the  next  cage  [we  see]  a  hyena  from  Africa,  wko  has  doubtless 
howled  around  the  pyramids.  —  Hawthorne. 

I  knew  a  tame  deer  in  a  settlement  in  the  edge  of  the  forest,  who 
had  the  misfortune  to  break  her  leg.  —  c.  D.  Warner. 

He  was  only  answered  by  the  cawing  of  a  flock  of  idle  crows,  .  .  . 
tvAo,  secure  in  their  elevation,  seemed  to  look  down  and  s  ofl"  at  the 
poor  man's  perplexities.      Irving. 


RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  69 

Which  is  applied  to  the  lower  animals  and  to  things  with- 
out life ;  as,  — 

His  good  steed,  which  had  borne  him  through  many  a  hard 
fight,  had  fallen  under  him.  —  prescott. 

Nature  has  indeed  given  us  a  soil  which  yields  bounteously  to 
the  hands  of  industry. —Webster. 

Which  was  formerly  used  in  speaking  of  persons ;  as,  — 
Our  Father  which  art  in  heaven. 

Which  sometimes  has  a  phrase  or  a  clause  for  its  ante- 
cedent ;  as,  — 

In  the  midst  of  these  my  musings  she  desired  me  to  reach  her  a 
little  salt  upon  the  point  of  my  knife,  which  I  did  in  such  a  trepi- 
dation and  hurry  of  obedience  that  I  let  it  drop  by  the  way. 

—  Addison. 
It  is  probable  that  when  this  great  work  was  begun,  which  must 
have  been  many  hundred  years  ago,  there  was  religion  among  this 
people. —Addison. 

As  he  approached  the  village,  he  met  a  number  of  people,  but 
none  whom  he  knew,  which  somewhat  surprised  him,  for  he  had 
thought  himself  acquainted  with   every  one  in  the  country  round. 

—  Irving. 
When  he  was  angered,  which  was  often  enough,  he  gave  his  com- 
mands and  breathed  threats  of  punishment  like  any  king. 

—  R.  L.  Stevenson. 

In  each  of  the  foregoing  examples,  which  refers  not  to  a 
single  word,  but  to  the  idea  expressed  by  the  preceding 
clause. 


70  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

That  is  applied  to  persons,  to  animals,  and  to  things;  as, — 

Thrice  is  he  armed  that  hath  his  quarrel  just.  —  Shakespv.are. 
Even  the  very  dog  that  lay  stretched  at  his  feet  .  .  .  would  look 
fondly  up  in  his  master's  face.  — Irving. 

A  city  that  is  set  on  a  hill  cannot  be  hid.  —  Bible. 

That  is  generally  preferred  to  who  or  which  — 
(i)  In    introducing   a   relative    clause    that    limits   or    re- 
stricts the  meaning  of  the  antecedent ;  ^  as,  — 

They  that  touch  pitch  will  be  defiled. 

(2)  After  a  joint  reference  to  persons  and  things ;  as,  — 
Where  are  the  boy  and  dog  that  we  met  ? 

When  the  relative  that  is  used  as  the  object  of  a  prepo- 
sition, the  preposition  follows  the  pronoun  ;  as,  — 

Here  is  the  hat  that  you  looked  at. 

What  refers  to  things.  It  is  generally  used  without  an 
antecedent  expressed,  and  is  equivalent  to  that  which;  as,  — 

She  remembers  what  (that  which)  she  reads. 

As  is  sometimes  used  as  a  relative  pronoun.  It  is  then 
usually  preceded  by  such;  as, — 

Let  such  as  (those  who)   hear  take  heed. 

1  Some  recent  authorities  teach  that  only  that  should  be  used  when  the 
relative  clause  is  limiting  or  defining  ;  as,  the  man  that  runs  fastest  wins  the 
race  ;  but  who  or  which  when  it  is  descriptive  or  coordinating :  as,  this  man, 
who  ran  fastest,  won  the  race ;  but,  though  present  usage  is  perhaps  tending 
in  the  direction  of  such  a  distinction,  it  neither  has  been  nor  is  a  rule  of 
English  speech,  nor  is  it  likely  to  become  one.  —  The  Century  Dictionary, 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  71 

But  is  sometimes  a  relative  pronoun.  It  has  a  negative 
force ;  as,  — 

There  is  no  fireside,  howsoe'er  defended, 

But  has   {that  has  not)   one  vacant  chair.  —  Longfellow. 

DECLENSION   OF   RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 

Who  is  declined,  in  both  singular  and  plural,  with  the 
nominative  who^  the  possessive  whose^  and  the  objective 
whom;   as, — 

Blessed  is  he  who  has  found  his  work. 
There  is  a  reaper  whose  name  is  Death. 
He  whom  I  loved  is  dead. 

The  other  relative  pronouns  are  not  declined,  but  whose  is 
often  used  as  if  it  were  the  possessive  form  of  which  (that 
is,  as  equivalent  to  of  whicli) ;  as,  — 

Bordered  with  trees  whose  gay  leaves  fly. —  Bryant. 

The  simple  relative  pronouns  have  the  following  forms :  — 

Singular  and  Plural 

Nom.    who  which  that  what 

Poss.     whose  (whose)  

Obj.      whom  which  that  what 

COMPOUND  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS 
» 

Pronouns  formed  by  adding  ever,  so,  or  soever  to  who, 
which,  and  what  are  called  compound  relative  pronouns ;  as, 
whoever,  whoso,  whosoever ;  whichever,  whichsoever ;  what- 
ever, whatsoever. 


72  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

These  compounds  are  generally  used  without  antecedents 
expressed.     Thus,  — 

Whoever  looks  may  find  the  spot. 

Whoso  diggeth  a  pit  shall  fall  therein. 

Whosoever-  will  save  his  life,  shall  lose  it. 

Whatsoever  thy  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might. 

Since  they  do  not  refer  to  definite  persons  or  things,  they 
are  sometimes  called  indefinite  relative  pronouns. 
Whoever  and  whosoever  are  declined  as  follows :  — 

Singular  and  Plural 

Nom.   whoever  whosoever 

Poss.    whosever  whosesoever 

Obj.     whomever  whomsoever 

The  person,  number,  and  gender  of  a  relative  pronoun 
are  determined  by  its  antecedent,  thus :  — 

He  prayeth  best,  who  loveth  best 

All  things,  both  great  and  small. —Coleridge. 

In  this  example,  zvho  refers  to  he,  hence  it  is  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  and  masculine  gender. 

The  case  of  a  relative  pronoun  depends  upon  its  use  in 
its  own  clause.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "Uneasy  lies  the 
head  that  wears  a  crown,"  that  is  the  subject  of  the  verb 
wears,  hence  it  is  in  the  nominative  case.  In  the  sentence, 
"The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them,"  that  is  the  object 
of  the  verb  do,  and  is,  therefore,  in  the  objective  case. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS  73 

EXERCISE  66 

Point  out  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences^ 
7taine  their  antecedents^  tell  what  the  pronouns  connect^  and 
give  the  person,   number,  gender,  and  case  of  each :  — 

1.  He  that  lacks  time  to  mourn  lacks  time  to  mend. 

2.  Where  lies  the  land  to  which  the  ship  would  go? 

3-  My  ramble  soon  led  me  to  the  church,  which  stood  a  little 
distance  from  the  village.— Irving. 

4.  What  a  man  has  learnt  is  of  importance,  but  what  he  is,  what 
he   can    do,  what  he  will  become,  are  more  significant  things. 

—  Helps. 

5.  He  that  is  slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty.  — bible. 

6.  A  land  that  will  not  yield  satisfactorily  without  irrigation,  and 
whose  best  paying  produce  requires  intelHgent  as  well  as  careful 
husbandry,  will  never  be  an  idle  land.  — Warner. 

7.  All  precious  things,  discovered  late, 

To  those  that  seek  them  issue  forth.  —  Tennyson. 

8.  They  are  slaves  who  dare  not  be 

In  the  right  with  two  or  three.  —  Lowell. 

9.  Here,  then,  I  parted,  sorrowfully,  from  the  companion  with 
whom  I  set  out  on  my  journey.  — holmes. 

10.  He  who  has  sought  renown  about  the  world,  and  has  reaped 
a  full  harvest  of  worldly  favor,  will  find,  after  all,  that  there  is  no 
love,  no  admiration,  no  applause,  so  sweet  to  the  soul  as  that  which 
springs  up  in  his  native  place.  —  Irving. 

11.  We  have  no  bird  whose  song  will  match  the  nightingale's 
in  compass,  none  whose  note  is  so  rich  as  that  of  the  European 
blackbird :  but  for  mere  rapture  I  have  never  heard  the  bobo- 
link's rival.  —  Lowell. 


74  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

12.  Whoever  examines  the  maps  of  London  which  were  pub- 
lished toward  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Second  will 
see  that  only  the  nucleus  of  the  present  capital  then   existed. 

—  Macaulay. 

13.  Whatever  befell  them,  it  was  not  dishonor,  and  whatever 
failed    them,   they   were   not   found   wanting   to   themselves. 

— R.  L.  Stevenson. 

14.  Whatsoever  he  doeth  shall  prosper. 

15.  The  books  which  help  you  most  are  those  which  make 
you  think  most.  —  Parker. 

16.  They  never  fail  who  die  in  a  great  cause.  —  byron. 

17.  The  Upper  Lake  discharges  itself  into  the  Lower  by  a 
brook  which  winds  through  a  mile  and  a  half  of  swamp  and 
woods.  —  Warner. 

18.  I  tell  you  that  which  you  yourselves  do  know. 

—  Shakespeare. 

19.  How  beautiful  upon  the  mountains  are  the  feet  of  him 
that  bringeth  good  tidings  !  —  Bible. 

20.  Where  are  the  flowers,  the   fair   young   flowers,  that   lately 

sprang  and  stood 
In  brighter  light,  and  softer  air,  a  beauteous  sisterhood? 

21.  The  charities  that  soothe  and  heal  and  bless, 
Lie  scattered  at  the  feet  of  men  like  flowers. 

22.  There  breathes  not  clansman  of  thy  line 

But  would  have  given  his  life  for  mine.  — Scott. 

OMISSION   OF  THE   RELATIVE  PRONOUN 

The  relative  pronoun  is  often  omitted  when,  if  expressed, 
it  would  be  in  the  objective  case;    as, — 

Observe  the  language  well  in  all  \_that\  you  write. 


RELATIVE   PRONOUNS  75 

In   poetry,    the    relative    pronoun    is   sometimes    omitted, 
even  when  it  would  be  the  subject;    as, — 

'Tis  distance  \_that~\  lends  enchantment  to  the  view.  —  Campbell. 

The  antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun  is  sometimes  omitted, 
being  implied  in  the  pronoun ;  as,  — 

[Hel  Who  breaks,  pays. 


EXERCISE    67 

Tell  where  relative  pronouns  are  omitted  in  the  following 
sentences^  and  name  the  case  of  each  omitted  word:  — 

1.  I  am  not  altogether  unqualified  for  the  business  I  have  under- 
taken. —  Addison. 

2.  All  the  faces  he  drew  were  very  remarkable  for  their  smiles. 

—  Addison. 

3.  The  house  we  lived  in  is  sold. 

4.  Few  and  short  were  the  prayers  we  said.  — Wolfe. 

5.  The  stranger  at  my  fireside  cannot  see 

The  forms  I  see,  nor  hear  the  sounds  I  hear.  —  Longfellow. 

6.  'Tis  the  sunset  of  life  gives  me  mystical  lore.  — Campbell. 

7.  I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey.  —  Cowper. 

8.  Nearly  all  of  his  poems  were  intended  to  further  a  cause  he 
held  dear,  or  to  teach  a  lesson  he  thought  needful. 

9.  All  I  hear 
Is  the  north  wind  drear. 


7^  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   XXXIII 

RELATIVE   CLAUSES 

EXPLANATORY   aND  RESTRICTIVE 

Tell  which  clauses,  in  the  following  senterices,  introduce 
additional  ideas  about  the  antecedents,  and  which  limit  or 
restrict  their  meaning  :  — 

1.  The  physician,  who  was  in  the  next  room,  entered. 

2.  I  thrice  presented  him  a  kingly  crown. 
Which  he  did  thrice  refuse. 

3.  I  know  the  man  that  must  hear  me. 

4.  They  that  have  done  this  deed  are  honorable. 

A  clause  that  introduces  an  additional  idea  about  the 
antecedent  is  explanatory  ;  as,  — 

They  had  one  son,  who  had  grown  up  to  be  the  staff  and  pride 
of  their  age. 

The  cargo,  which  was  valuable,  was  lost. 

A  clause  that  limits  or  restricts  the  meaning  of  the 
antecedent  is  restrictive  ;  as,  — 

The  bird  that  soars  on  highest  wing 
Builds  on  the  ground  her  lowly  nest. 

That  is  generally  preferred  to  who  or  which  in  introducing 
a  restrictive  clause.^ 

A  relative  clause  not  restrictive  is  separated  from  the 
remainder  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma. 

*  See  footnote    page  70. 


RELATIVE   CLAUSES  JJ 

EXERCISE  68 

Point  out  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences^ 
and  tell  in  each  case  whether  they  introduce  explanatory  or 
restrictive  clauses:  — 

1.  He  that  is  not  with  me  is  against  me. 

2.  The  Carrier,  who  had  turned  his  face  from  the  door,  signed 
to  him  to  go  if  he  would.  — Dickens. 

3.  Carefully  then  were  covered  the  embers  that  glowed  on  the 
hearthstone.  —Longfellow. 

4.  Not  far  from  the  gateway  they  came  to  a  bridge,  which  seemed 
to  be  built  of  iron.  —  Hawthorne. 

5.  The  first  spring  wild-flowers^  whose  shy  faces  among  the  dry 
leaves  and  rocks  are  so  welcome,  yield  no  honey John  Burroughs. 

6.  The  tongue  is  like  a  race-horse,  which  runs  the  faster  the 
less  weight  it  carries. —Addison. 

7.  We  were  the  first  that  ever  burst 

Into  that  silent  sea. —Coleridge. 

8.  Bordered  with  trees  whose  gay  leaves  fly 
On  every  breath  that  sweeps  the  sky 
The  fresh  dark  acres  furrowed  lie, 

And  ask  the  sower's  hand.  — Bryant. 

9.  The  mind  that  lies  fallow  but  a  single  day  sprouts  up  in 
follies  that  are  only  to  be  killed  by  a  constant  and  assiduous 
culture.  —Addison. 

10.  A  tree,  which  grew  out  from  the  hillside,  was  the  Hving 
centre-beam  of  the  roof.  — Stevenson. 

11.  And  everybody  praised  the  Duke, 

Who  this  great  fight  did  win.  —  southey. 


78  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

12.  Brazil,  which  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  whole  of  Europe,  is 
covered  with  a  vegetation  of  incredible  profusion.  Indeed,  so  rank 
and  luxuriant  is  the  growth,  that  Nature  seems  to  riot  in  the  very 
wantonness  of  power.  A  great  part  of  this  immense  country  is 
filled  with  denstf  and  tangled  forests,  whose  noble  trees,  blossoming 
in  unrivalled  beauty,  and  exquisite  with  a  thousand  hues,  throw 
out  their  produce  in  endless  prodigality.  On  their  summit  are 
perched  birds  of  gorgeous  plumage,  which  nestle  in  their  dark 
and  lofty  recesses.  Below,  their  bases  and  trunks  are  crowded 
with  brushwood,  creeping  plants,  innumerable  parasites,  all  swarming 
with  life.  There,  too,  are  myriads  of  insects  of  every  variety ; 
reptiles  of  strange  and  singular  form ;  serpents  and  lizards,  spotted 
with  deadly  beauty :  all  of  which  find  means  of  existence  in  this 
vast  workshop  and  repository  of  Nature.  And  that  nothing  may  be 
wanting  to  this  land  of  marvels,  the  forests  are  skirted  by  enormous 
meadows,  which,  reeking  with  heat  and  moisture,  supply  nourishment 
to  countless  herds  of  wild  cattle,  that  browse  and  fatten  on  their 
herbage ;  while  the  adjoining  plains,  rich  in  another  form  of  life, 
are  the  chosen  abode  of  the  subtlest  and  most  ferocious  animals, 
which  prey  on  each  other,  but  which  it  almost  seems  no  human 
power  can  hope  to  extirpate.  —  buckle. 

EXERCISE  69 

Select  from  your  Reader  or  History  six  relative  clauses 
that  are  explanatory^  and  six  others  that  are  restrictive. 

CHAPTER   XXXIV 

CLASSES   OF   PRONOUNS  — C^«/i««^ar 
IV.     INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS 

How  are  the  italicized  words  used  in  the  following 
sentences  ? 


CLASSES   OF   PRONOUNS  79 

1.  Who  comes  here  ? 

2.  Which  reached  home  first  ? 

3.  What  is  the  news  ? 

A  pronoun  used  in  asking  a  question  is  an  interrogative 
pronoun.  An  interrogative  pronoun  may  be  used  in  a 
direct  or  an  indirect  question  ;    thus,  — 

What  did  you  see  ?     (Direct  question.) 

I  asked  what  you  saw.     (Indirect  question.) 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  and  what. 

Who  refers  to  persons.  It  is  declined  like  the  relative 
who. 

Which  refers  to  persons  or  to  things.  It  implies  selec- 
tion ;  as,  — 

Which  of  the  brothers  sings  ? 

Which  of  the  chairs  do  you  prefer  ? 

What  refers  to  things  ;  as,  — 

What  was  in  the  box  ? 

Whether  was  formerly  in  common  use  as  an  interroga- 
tive pronoun  ;  as,  — 

Whether  is  greater,  the  gift  or  the  altar  ? 

Which  and  what  are  sometimes  used  as  interrogative 
adjectives ;  as,  — 

Which  way  shall  I  fly  ? 

Where  are  they  now  ?     What  lands  and  skies 

Paint  pictures  in  their  friendly  eyes  ? 

What  hope  deludes,  what  promise  cheers. 

What  pleasant  voices  fill  their  ears  ?  —  Longfellow. 


8o  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

As  an  interrogative  adjective,  what,  like  which,  is  used 
of  persons  as  well  as  of  things ;   as, — 

What  man  would  say  such  a  thing?     Which  boy  replied? 

EXERCISE  70 

Point  out  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences,  tell 
the  kind  of  each  pronoun^  and  name  its  case :  — 

1.  Who  can  understand  his  errors  ? 

2.  Which  of  you,  by  taking  thought,  can  add  one  cubit  unto  his 
stature  ? 

3.  Shall  the  clay  say  to  him  that  fashioneth  it,  What  makest  thou  ? 

4.  Who  planted  this  old  apple  tree  ? 

5.  What  is  civiHzation?    What  does  it  consist  in? 

6.  Whom  shall  I  send  ? 

7.  Ah  !  what  is  that  sound  which  now  bursts  on  his  ear?  — Dimond. 

8.  Who,  among  the  whole  chattering  crowd,  can  tell  me  of  the 
forms  and  the  precipices  of  the  chain  of  tall  white  mountains  that 
girded  the  horizon  at  noon  yesterday  ?  Who  saw  the  narrow  sunbeam 
that  came  out  of  the  south,  and  smote  upon  their  summits  until  they 
melted  and  mouldered  away  in  a  dust  of  blue  rain  ?  Who  saw  the 
dance  of  the  dead  clouds  when  the  sunHght  left  them  last  night,  and 
the  west  wind  blew  them  before  it  Hke  withered  leaves  ?  —  Ruskin. 

EXERCISE   71 

Tell  whether  the  italicized  words  in  the  followifig  sentences 
are  interrogative  or  relative  pronouns,  giving  a  reason  in  each 
instance :  — 

1 .  What  is  the  Constitution  ?  It  is  the  bond  which  binds  together 
millions  of  brothers.  —  Daniel  w^ebster. 


HOW   TO   PARSE   PRONOUNS  8 1 

2.  The  divine  faculty  is  to  see  what  everybody  can  look  at. — 

—  Lowell. 

3.  Now  tell  us  all  about  the  war, 

And  what  they  fought  each  other  for.  ~  Southey, 

4.  The  lovely  lady  Christabel, 
Whom  her  father  loves  so  well, 
What  makes  her  in  the  wood  so  late, 

A  furlong  from  the  castle  gate  ?  —  Coleridge. 

5.  It  was  with  great  difficulty  that  the  self-important  man  in  the 
cocked  hat  restored  order ;  and  having  assumed  a  tenfold  austerity 
of  brow,  demanded  again  of  the  unknown  culprit,  what  he  came 
there  for,  and  whom  he  was  seeking. —  Irving. 

6.  Do  you  ask  what  the  birds  say  ? 

7.  Things  are  not  what  they  seem. 

8.  Who  is  the  great  man  ?  He  who  is  the  strongest  in  the 
exercise  of  patience ;  he  who  patiently  endures  injury. 

CHAPTER   XXXV 

HOW   TO    PARSE    PRONOUNS 

To  parse  a .  pronoun,  state  — 

(i)  Its  class. 

(2)  Its  antecedent  (if  it  is  a  relative  pronoun). 

(3)  Its  person  (if  it  is  a  personal  or  a  relative  pronoun). 

(4)  Its  number. 

(5)  Its  gender  (if  it  is  a  personal  pronoun    of   the    third 

person  singular). 

(6)  Its  case. 

(7)  Its  syntax  or  construction  —  use  in  the  sentence. 


82  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Example  I.  And  then  /  think  of  one  who  in  her  youthful 
beauty  died. 

1.  /  is  a  personal  pronoun,  first  person,  singular  number,  and 
nominative  case  —  subject  of  the  verb  think} 

2.  One  is  an  adjective  pronoun,  third  person,  singular  number, 
and  objective  case  —  object  of  the  preposition  of. 

3.  Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  third  person,  singular  number, 
agreeing  with  its  antecedent  one,  and  nominative  case  —  subject  of 
the  verb  died. 

4.  Her  is  a  personal  pronoun,  third  person,  singular  number, 
feminine  gender,  and  possessive  case  —  depending  upon  the  noun 
beauty^ 

Example  II.    No  one  heard  what  he  said. 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun,  used  without  an  antecedent  expressed, 
of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  and  objective  case  —  object 
of  the  verb  said, 

EXERCISE  72 

Parse  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  :  — 

1.  The  moon  did  not  rise  till  after  ten,  so  I  had  two  hours  of 
intense  darkness  during  which  I  used  my  ears  instead  of  my  eyes. 

—  M.  Thompson. 

2.  And  what  is  so  rare  as  a  day  in  June  ?  — Lowell. 

3.  Hang  around  your  walls  pictures  which  shall  tell  stories  of 
mercy,  hope,  courage,  faith,  and  charity.  —  D.  G.  Mitchell. 

4.  A  few  hoped,  and  many  feared,  that  some  scheme  of  mon- 
archy would  be  established. —John  Fiske. 

1  Or  follow  a  briefer  form,  similar  to  the  one  suggested  on  p.  54. 


HOW   TO   PARSE  PRONOUNS  83 

5.  With  merry  songs  we  mock  the  wind 

That  in  the  pine  top  grieves, 
And  slumber  long  and  sweetly 

On  beds  of  oaken  leaves.  —  Bryant. 

6.  I  witnessed  a  striking  incident   in  bird   life  which  was  very 
suggestive.  —  M.  Thompson. 

7.  Hast  thou  a  charm  to  stay  the  morning  star  ?  — Coleridge. 

8.  He  laid  him  down  and  closed  his  eyes.— southey. 

9.  Triumphant  arch,  that  fill'st  the  sky 

When  storms  prepare  to  part, 
I  ask  not  proud  Philosophy 

To  teach  me  what  thou  art.  —  Campbell. 

10.  He  that  only  rules  by  terror 

Doeth  grievous  wrong. —Tennyson. 

11.  We  judge  ourselves  by  what  we  feel  capable  of  doing,  while 
others  judge  us  by  what  we  have  already  done.  —  Longfellow. 

12.  I  fear  thee,  ancient  mariner! 

I  fear  thy  skinny  hand  ! 
And  thou  art  long,  and  lank,  and  brown, 
As  is  the  ribbed  sea-sand.  — CoLERmoE. 

13.  Some   are   born  great,   some   achieve  greatness,   and   some 
have  greatness  thrust  upon  them.  —  Shakespeare. 

14.  He  who   plants  an  oak   looks   forward  to   future   ages,  and 
plants  for  posterity. —  Irving. 

15.  Which  of  us  shall  be  the  soonest  folded  to  that  dim  Un- 

known? 
Which   shall    leave   the    other   walking   in    this    flinty   path 
alone  ?  —  Bryant. 


84  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   XXXVI 

REVIEW   OF    PRONOUNS 
EXERCISE   73 

What  is  a  pronoun  ?  How  does  a  pronoun  differ  from 
a  noun  ? 

Mention  the  different  classes  of  pronoups  and  give 
examples  of  each  class. 

What  is  a  personal  pronoun  ?  How  many  case  forms 
has  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person  ?  How  is  each 
used  ? 

Give  the  second  person  singular,  and  tell  how  it  is  used. 
Give  two  uses  of   the  pronoun  you. 

Which  person  has  a  distinction  of  gender }  State  special 
uses  of  the  pronouns  of  the  masculine,  feminine,  and  neu- 
ter genders.  How  are  the  possessive  forms  of  personal 
pronouns  used.-* 

Mention  the  compound  personal  pronouns,  and  tell  how 
they  are  formed. 

Give  an  example  of  their  use  as  reflexives ;  for  emphasis. 

How  does  an  adjective  pronoun  differ  from  an  adjective.'' 

Define  a  relative  pronoun.  State  the  distinctions  in 
the  use  of  who,  which,  and  what.  Give  a  sentence  in 
which  as  is  used  as  a  relative  pronoun;  in  which  but  is 
so  used. 

What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun }  What  words  are  used 
as  interrogative  pronouns? 


CLASSES  OF    ADJECTIVES  8$ 

CHAPTER   XXXVII 

CLASSES   OF   ADJECTIVES 

Point  out  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences,  and 
tell  what  each  expresses  :  — 

1.  I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thirsting  flowers. 

2.  The  sun  is  warm,  the  sky  is  clear. 

3.  A  Httle  leaven  leaveneth  the  whole  lump. 

4.  Three  years  she  grew  in  sun  and  shower. 

(i)  An  adjective  that  expresses  quality  or  kind  is  a  de- 
scriptive adjective ;  as,  a  happy  boy ;  a  narrow  path ;  a 
wooden  bench. 

The  following  terms  are  sometimes  applied  to  certain  descriptive 
adjectives  :  — 

{a)  Proper  Adjectives,  those  formed  from  proper  names ;  as, 
American  forests ;  the  English  language.  Proper  adjectives  begin 
with  capital  letters. 

{F)  Participial  Adjectives,  which  are  participles*  used  simply 
as  adjectives ;  as,  burning  words,  the  rising  sun,  withered  leaves. 

(2)  An  adjective  that  points  out  something  or  denotes 
number  or  quantity  is  a  limiting  adjective ;  as,  this  week ; 
two  hours;  7nuch  trouble. 

A  Hmiting  adjective  may  be  used  — 

(^)  Simply  to  point  out ;  as,  this,  that,  the,  an,  yon,  yonder.  Sucli 
adjectives  are  sometimes  called  demonstrative  adjectives. 

*  See  page  115. 


86  •       ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

(<5)  To  express  a  definite  number ;   as,  one,  two,  fourteen,  fifty, 
{/)  To  express  an  indefinite  number  or  quantity ;  as,  any,  little, 

much,  many,  some. 

{d)  To  show  the  order  of  things  in  a  series ;  as,  first,  second, 

third. 

Limiting  adjectives  expressing  number  are  called  numeral  ad- 
jectives.    Numerals  are  classified  as  — 

{a)  Cardinals,  those  denoting  how  many ;  as,  one,  two,  three. 
{b)  Ordinals,  those  denoting   the  order  of  things  in   a   series; 
as,  third,  fourth,  fifth. 

An  adjective  formed  from  two  simple  words  is  called  a 
compound  adjective ;  as,  native-born  citizen,  rock-bound  coast, 
low-vaulted  roof,  twenty-third  psalm. 

EXERCISE  74 

Point  out  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences,  state 
the  office  of  each,  and  tell  what  kind  of  adjective  it  is :  — 

1.  Thirty-two  statues  of  various  sizes  were  found  in  this  field. 

2.  Its  chief  attractions  were  a  never-failing  breeze  at  night,  good 
water,  and  a  large  garden  in  the  centre  of  a  cleared  space. 

3.  Hark  !  'tis  the  twanging  horn  o'er  yonder  bridge.  — Cowper. 

4.  We  met  several  men  riding  at  a  rapid  pace. 

5.  Across  its  antique  portico 

Tall  poplar- trees  their  shadows  throw.  —  Longfellow. 

6.  This  long  march  through  the  primeval  forest  and  over  rugged 
and  trackless  mountains  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  exploits  of 
the  war. 


CLASSES   OF   ADJECTIVES 


87 


7.  O   blessings   on   his   kindly  voice   and   on   his   silver    hair  ! 

8.  Suddenly  there  was  a  gentle  little  tap  on  the  inside  of  the  lid. 

9.  The  thirteen  colonies  were  now  free  and  independent  states. 

10.  A  certain  man  fell  among  thieves. 

11.  Small  service  is  true  service  while  it  lasts.  —  Wordswortfl 

12.  All  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds.  — Gray. 

13.  The  good  old  year  is  with  the  past.  —  Bryant. 

14.  With  a  slow  and  noiseless  footstep 
Comes  that  messenger  divine.  —  Longfellow. 

15.  With  fingers  weary  and  worn, 

With  eyelids  heavy  and  red, 
A  woman  sat,  in  unwomanly  rags. 
Plying  her  needle  and  thread.  —  Hood. 

16.  All  the  little  boys  and  girls. 
With  rosy  cheeks  and  flaxen  curls. 

And  sparkling  eyes  and  teeth  like  pearls, 

Tripping  and  skipping,  ran  merrily  after 

The  wonderful  music  with  shouting  and  laughter. 

—  Browning. 

EXERCISE  75 

Write  sentences  containing  the  following  words   used  as 
adjectives  :  — 


strong 

any 

many 

brittle 

prompt 

fair 

all 

curved 

every 

distant 

both 

dutiful 

little 

modern 

neither 

some 

few 

much 

each 

another 

clear 

brief 

certain 

other 

several 

88  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   XXXVIII 

ARTICLES 

The  limiting  adjectives  the  and  an  or  a  (the  shortened  form 
of  an)  are  sometimes  called  articles. 

The  is  the  weakened  form  of  that.  It  is  called  the  definite 
article. 

The  is  used  to  point  our  some  particular  thing  or  things  or 
a  class  of  things  ;  ^  as,  — 

And  the  Piper  advanced  and  the  children  followed.  —  Browning. 
The  stars  are  out  by  twos  and  threes.— Wordsworth. 

An  or  a  is  the  weakened  form  of  the  numeral  adjective 
one.     It  is  called  the  indefinite  article. 

An  or  a  is  used  to  point  out  any  one  thing  of  a  class ; 
as,— 

A  man  has  no  more  right  to  say  an  uncivil  thing  than  to  act 
one.  — Dr.  Johnson. 

While  the  indefinite  article  is  generally  used  before  a 
singular  noun,  it  is  also  used  before  a  plural  noun  with 
feWy  greats  many,  or  good  many ;    as,  — 

A  few  days,  a  great  many  books,  a  good  many  people. 

The  indefinite  article  should  not  be  used  before  a  word 
denoting  a  whole  class.  Thus,  not  "What  kind  of  a  bird 
was  it.?"  *'I  do  not  like  that  sort  of  a  thing";  but  "What 
kind  of  bird  was  it.?"     "I  do  not  like  that  sort  of  thing." 

1  In  such  phrases  as  "  the  more  the  merrier,"  the  is  not  an  article,  but  an  adverb. 
See  page  220. 


ARTICLES  89 

EXERCISE  76 

In  the  following  sentences  find  the  articles  that  point  out 
(i)  some  particular  thing  or  things ;  (2)  a  class  of  things ; 
(3)  any  one  thing  of  a  class :  — 

1.  Blessed  is  the  man  that  walketh  not  in  the  counsel  of  the 
wicked,  ^t- 

2.  A  wise  man  will  make  haste  to  forgive. 

3.  The  shamrock  is  the  national  emblem  of  Ireland. 

4.  A  fair  little  girl  sat  under  a  tree. 

5.  The  salmon  is  both  a  marine  and  a  fresh-water  fish. 

6.  He  returned  with  the  title  of  Admiral. 

7.  The  maples  redden  in  the  sun; 

In  autumn  gold  the  beeches  stand. 

8.  Consider  the  lilies  how  they  grow. 

AN   OR  A 

An  is  used  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound  ;^ 
as,  an  apple ;  an  initial ;  an  hour. 

A  is  used  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant 
sound ;  as,  a  boat ;  a  day ;  many  a  one  (one  begins  with  the 
consonant  sound  oi  w);  a  unit  (unit  begins  with  the  conso- 
nant sound  of  J/). 

EXERCISE  77 
Read  the  follozving  sentences,  supplying  the  proper  form  of 
the  indefinite  article.     Give   in   each   case  a  reason  for  your 

choice :  — 

1.  Be  hero  in  the  strife. 

2.  He  is  humorist. 

^  An  was  formerly  used  before  all  words  beginning  with  k,  and  is  still  used 
by  many  writers  before  A  in  unaccented  syllables;   as,  an  hotel;  an  historian. 


90  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

3.  For  Brutus  is  honorable  man. 

4.  He  that  hath trade  hath estate,  and  he  that  hath 

' calHng  hath  office  of  profit  and  honor. 

5.  Such  one  is  seldom  found. 

6.  I  learned  that  he  was universal  favorite  in  the  village. 

7.  That  book  is  — —  authority  on  this  subject. 

8.  hundred  dogs  bayed  deep  and  strong, 

Clattered  hundred  steeds  along, 

Their  peal  the  merry  horns  rung  out, 

hundred  voices  joined  the  shout. 

9.  The  shades  of  night  were  falHng  fast, 
As  through  Alpine  village  passed 

youth,  who  bore,  'mid  snow  and  ice, 

banner  with  the  strange  device, 

Excelsior  ! 

10.   Truth  is  the  highest  thing  man  may  keep. 

REPETITION   OR  OMISSION   OF  THE  ARTICLE 

When  tvi^o  or  more  adjectives  modify  the  same  noun,  the 
article  is  used  before  the  first  only ;  but  when  they  modify 
different  nouns,  expressed  or  understood,  the  article  is  used 
before  each ;  as,  — 

A  red  and  white  rose   (one  rose). 
A  red  and  a  white  rose   (two  roses). 

Sometimes,  however,  when  the  adjectives  modify  the 
same  noun,  the  article  is  repeated  for  emphasis;  as  ''An 
amusing  and   an  instructive  book." 

The  article  is  sometimes  used  before  each  adjective  with 
a  noun  in  the  singular,  and   before  the  first  adjective  only 


ARTICLES  91 

with  a  noun  in  the  plural ;  as,  '*  Omit  the  second  and 
the  third  stanza,"  or  "  Omit  the  second  and  third  stanzas." 
When  two  or  more  connected  nouns  refer  to  the  same 
person  or  'thing,  the  article  is  used  before  the  first  only ; 
but  when  they  refer  to  different  persons  or  things  that  are 
to  be  especially  distinguished,  the  article  is  used  before 
each ;  as,  — 

He  was  an  eminent  orator  and  statesman. 

Its  effect  approaches  to  that  produced  by  the  pencil  or  the 
chisel —  Macaulay. 

In  expressing  a  comparison,  if  two  nouns  refer  to  the 
same  person  or  thing,  the  article  is  used  before  the  first 
noun  only ;  but  if  they  refer  to  different  persons  or  things, 
the  article  must  be  used  with  each  noun;  as, — 

1.  He  would  make  a  better  statesman  than  orator  (=  He 
would  make  a  better  statesman  than  [he  would  make  an]  orator). 

2.  He  would  make  a  better  statesman  than  an  orator  (=  He 
would  make  a  better  statesman  than  an  orator  [would  make] ) . 

EXERCISE  78 

Give  reasons  for  the  repetition  or  the  omission  of  the  article 
in  each  of  the  following  sentences :  — 


1.  He  purchased   from  the  Indians  a  large  and  fertile  tract 
land. 

2.  Wanted,  a  stenographer  and  typewriter. 

3.  Wanted,  a  stenographer  and  a  typewriter.  ^''- 

4.  To  the  wise  and  good,  old  age  presents  a  scene  of  tranquil 
enjoyment. 


of/ 


92  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

5.  On  the  rich  and  the  eloquent,  on  nobles  and  priests,  they 
looked  down  with  contempt. 

6.  Here  was  a  type  of  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  human 
pomp  and  power. 

7.  He  had,  indeed,  a  quick  observation  and^  retentive  memory. 

8.  What  manner  of  man  is  this,  that  even  the  wind  and  the  sea 
obey  him  !  ^.. 

9.  He  detected,  with  unfailing  skill,  the  good  or  the  vile  wher- 
ever it  existed. 

10.  However  strange,  however  grotesque,  may  be  the  appearance 
which  Dante  undertakes  to  describe,  he  never  shrinks  from  describing 
it.     He  gives  us  the  shape,  the  color,  the  sound,  the  smell,  the  taste. 

11.  The  third  and  fourth  chapters  are  brief  and  dry. 

12.  Have  you  read  the  seventh  and  the  eighth  chapter? 

13.  He  is  a  better  speaker  than  writer. 

14.  He  was  a  ready  orator,  an  elejgant  poet,  a  skilful  gardener,  an 
excellent  cook,  and  a  most  contemptible  sovereign. 

15.  They  elected  a  secretary  and  a  treasurer. 

16.  He  had  naturally  a  generous  and  feeling  heart. 

17.  Down  in  a  green  and  shady  bed  a  modest  violet  grew. 

18.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  vowel  and  a  consonant? 


CHAPTER   XXXIX 

COMPARISON    OF   ADJECTIVES 

Tell  how  many  forms  the  adjective  long  has  in  the  foUov^- 
ing  sentences,  and  what  each  form  expresses :  — 

1.  This  work  requires  a  long  pencil. 

2.  Your  pencil  is  longer  than  mine. 

3.  Here  is  the  longest  pencil  in  the  box. 


COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES  93 

Some  adjectives  change  their  form  to  express  different  de- 
grees of  quality.     This  change  of  form  is  called  comparison. 

The  form  of  an  adjective  that  simply  expresses  the  quality 
is  the  positive  degree ;  as,  long,  short. 

The  form  of  an  adjective  that  expresses  a  higher  or  a 
lower  degree  of  the  quality  is  the  comparative  degree ;  as, 
longer,  shorter. 

The  form  of  an  adjective  that  expresses  the  highest  or 
the  lowest  degree  of  the  quality  is  the  superlative  degree ; 
as,  longest,  shortest. 

Most  adjectives  of  one  syllable  add  er  to  the  simple  form 
of  the  adjective,  to  form  the  comparative,  and  e^f,  to  form 
the  superlative.  If  the  adjective  ends  in  e,  one  e  is  omitted ; 
as,  — 

Positive  Comparative  Superlative 

long  longer  longest 

pure  purer  purest 

In  adding  these  suffixes  the  usual  rules  for  spelling  must  be  ob- 
served.    Thus :  — 

(i)  If  the  adjective  ends  in  e^  omit  the  e  before  adding  er  or 
est ;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest. 

(2)  If  the  adjective  ends  in  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change 
the  J' into//  as,  happy,  happier,  happiest. 

(3)  If  the  adjective  ends  in  a  single  consonant,  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  double  the  final  consonant;  as,  thin,  thinner,  thinnest. 

Most  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  prefix  more  or 
less  to  the  simple  form  of  the  adjective,  to  form  the  com- 
parative, and  most  or  leasit  to  form  the  superlative ;  as,  — 


94 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

careful 

more  careful 

most  careful 

fortunate 

less  fortunate 

least  fortunate 

A  few  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  ending  in  sounds  that 
unite  easily  with  the  sound  of  er  or  est,  may  be  compared 
by  adding  er  or  est;  as,  noble,  h-appy,  narrow,  tender,  pleasant. 
The  form  of  comparison  that  is  most  pleasing  to  the  ear 
should  be  used. 

IRREGULAR  COMPARISON 


ome  adjectives 

are  compared 

irregularly,  as  follows 

Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

bad,  evil,  ill 

worse 

worst 

far 

farther,  further 

farthest,  furthest 

fore 

former 

foremost,  first 

good,  well 

better 

best 

hind 

hinder 

hindmost,  hindermost 

[in]^ 

inner 

inmost,  innermost 

late 

latter,  later 

last,  latest 

little 

less,  lesser 

least 

many,  much 

more 

most 

near 

nearer 

nearest,  next 

nigh 

nigher 

nighest,  next 

old 

elder,  older 

eldest,  oldest 

[out] 

outer,  utter 

outmost,  outermost 
utmost,  uttermost 

[up]         • 

upper 

upmost,  uppermost 

1  The  words  in  the  brackets  are  adverbs.    No  corresponding  adjectives  exist 
in  the  positive  form. 


COMPARISON   OF   ADJECTIVES  95 

MEANINGS   OF  DOUBLE   FORMS 

Farther  zxv^  further  are  often  used  indiscriminately,  though 
further  is  generally  preferred  in  the  sense  of  additional; 
as, — 

No  further  reasons  were  given. 

Latter  and  last  are  used  in  speaking  of  order  in  a  series ; 
later  and  latest  refer  to  time;  as, — 

The  last  volume  is  just  published. 
Have  you  heard  the  latest  news? 

Lesser  is  opposed  to  greater;  as, — 

God  made  two  great  lights ;  the  greatei  light  to  rule  by  day, 
and  the  lesser  light  to  rule  by  night. 

Elder  is  opposed  to  younger;  older ^  to  new ;  as, — 

His  elder  son  was  in  the  field. 
.    Our  house  is  older  than  yours. 

Outer  is  opposed  to  inner ;  utter  means  complete^  total. 

The  outer  ^dXS.  has  fallen. 

The  attempt  to  sail  the  boat  was  an  utter  failure. 

Adjectives  expressing  meanings  that  do  not  admit  of  dif- 
ferent degrees  cannot,  if  taken  in  their  strict  sense,  be  com- 
pared ;  as,  one,  this,  that,  equal,  square,  vertical,  perfect^ 
universal. 


96  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

INFLECTION   FOR  NUMBER 

The  two  adjectives  this  and  that  are  inflected  for  number; 

thus,  — 

Singular  Plural 

this  these 

that  those 

EXERCISE  79 

(i)  Write  the  comparison  of  beautiful,  clear ^  deep,  elo- 
quent, famous,  heavy,  ill,  many,  little,  well. 

(2)  State  the  distinction  in  meaning  between  {a)  latter 
and  later ;  ih)  elder  and  older. 

(3)  Give  ten  adjectives  that  cannot  be  compared. 

EXERCISE  80 

Point  out  each  adjective  in  the  follozving  sentences,  name 
its  degree,  and  tell  what  it  modifies: 

1.  Choose  the  timbers  with  greatest  care.  —  Longfellow. 

2.  Of  all  the  old  festivals,  however,  that  of  Christmas  awakens 
the  strongest  and  most  heartfelt  associations. —  Irving. 

3.  He  who  ascends  to  mountain  tops  shall  find 

The  loftiest  peaks  most  wrapt  in  clouds  and  snow.  — Byron. 

4.  The  edges  and  corners  of  the  box  were  carved  with  most 
wonderful  skill.  —  Hawthorne. 

5.  She  is  more  precious  than  rubies.  —  Bible. 

6.  We  started  immediately  after  an  early  luncheon,  followed  an 
excellent  road  all  the  way,  and  were  back  in  time  for  dinner  at  half- 
past  six. 

7.  The  day  was  cloudy,  and  the  sea  very  rough. 


HOW   TO   PARSE   ADJECTIVES  97 

8.  Alas  !  when  evil  men  are  strong, 

No  life  is  good,  no  pleasure  long.  —  Wordsworth. 

9.  He  that  is  slow  to  anger  is  better  than  the  mighty.  —  Bible. 

10.  The  noblest  mind  the  best  contentment  has.  —  Spenser. 

11.  This  was  the  noblest  Roman  of  them  all.  —  Shakespeare. 

12.  The  greatest  man  is  he  who  chooses  the  right  with  invincible 
resolution ;  who  resists  the  sorest  temptations  from  within  and  from 
without ;  who  bears  the  heaviest  burdens  cheerfully ;  who  is  calmest 
and  most  fearless  under  menaces  and  frowns ;  whose  reliance  on 
truth,  on  virtue,  on  God,  is  most  unfaltering.  —  Channing. 


CHAPTER   XL 

HOW  TO   PARSE   ADJECTIVES 

To  parse  an  adjective,  tell  — 

(i)  Its  class. 

(2)  Its  degree  of  comparison  (if  the  adjective  can  be 
compared). 

(3)  Its  syntax  or  construction  —  use  in  the  sentence. 

Example.  —  The  north  wind  is  cold. 

1.  The  is  a  Hmiting  adjective,  modifying  the  expression  north 
wind. 

2.  North  is  a  descriptive  adjective,  modifying  the  noun  wind. 

3.  Cold  is  a  descriptive  adjective  of  the  positive  degree.  It 
completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb  is,  and  modifies  the  noun  wind^ 
limited  by  the  and  north. 


98  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  81 
Parse  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  It  is  the  most  beautiful  shrub  that  ever  sprang  out  of  the 
earth. 

2.  Every  good  tree  bringeth  forth  good  fruit,  but  a  corrupt  tree 
bringeth  forth  evil  fruit. 

3.  Such  pleasures  nerve  the  arm  for  strife, 
Bring  joyous  thoughts  and  golden  dreams. 

4.  This  door  led  into  a  passage  out  of  which  opened  four 
sleeping-rooms. 

5.  Wide  is  the  gate  and  broad  is  the  way. 

6.  In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  there  were  four 
New  England  colonies.  —  fiske. 

7.  Birds  of  the  polar  areas  of  snow  and  ice  are  white,  those 
of  the  tropics  are  vari-colored  and  brilliant-hued.  — m.  Thompson. 

8.  Straight  and  strong  and  magnificently  plumed,  the  palms  rose 
to  an  average  height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet.— a.  B.  Edwards. 

9.  Spring  is  the  season  when  the  volume  of  bird-song  poured 
round  the  world  is  incomparably  stronger,  fuller,  and  sweeter  than 
at  any  other. —M.  Thompson. 

10.  Lo  !  while  we  are  gazing,  in  swifter  haste 

Stream  down  the  snows  till  the  air  is  white.  —  Bryant. 

11.  The  habit  of  observation  is  the  habit  of  clear  and  decisive 
gazing.  Not  by  a  first  casual  glance,  but  by  a  steady  deliberate 
aim  of  the  eye  are  the   rare  and  characteristic   things   discovered. 

—John  Burroughs. 

12.  A  form  more  fair,  a  face  more  sweet, 

Ne'er  hath  it  been  my  lot  to  meet.  —  Whittier. 


CHOICE   OF   ADJECTIVE^^.  /;.  '.      ;  ;'  •,,):9C^ 

13.  A  beautiful  form  is  better  than  a  beautiful  face;  a  beautiful 
behavior  is  better  than  a  beautiful  form :  it  gives  a  higher 
pleasure  than  statues  or   pictures;   it  is  the  finest  of  the  fine  arts. 

—  Emerson. 


CHAPTER   XLI 

CHOICE   OF   ADJECTIVES 

The  adjectives  in  the  following  exercises  are  often  misused. 
Find  out  from  a  dictionary  their  exact  meaning,  and  be  care- 
ful to  use  them  in  their  proper  sense. 

EXERCISE  82 

Copy  the  following  sentences^  fillifig  the  blanks  with  appro- 
priate words  from  this  list:  — 

handsome  beautiful  splendid  fine 

pretty  lovely  elegant  grand 

1.  She  lived  in  a cottage  by  the  sea. 

2.  The  Viceroy  was  welcomed  by  a procession. 

3.  Niagara  is  a cataract. 

4.   feathers  make birds. 

5.  Pegasus  was  a  snow-white  steed,  with silvery  wings. 

6.  She  was  a  lady  of character. 

7.  The  room  was  filled  with furniture. 

8.  The  executive  mansion  is  a residence. 

9.  The  view  from  the  top  of  the  mountain  is . 

10.  The  sunset  was . 

11.  We  had  a sail  on  the  lake. 


?00  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  83 

Copy  the  following  sentences^  inserting  the  proper  word  in 
each  blank.     Give  in  each  case  a  reason  for  your  choice :  — 

I.  —  Cunning,  Attractive 

1.  What  an little  child  she  was  ! 

2.  The  fox  is  a animal. 

3.  The boy  eluded  his  pursuers. 

ll.  —  JDumb,  Dull,  Stupid 

1.  I  was with  silence ;  I  held  my  peace. 

2.  The  boy  was  so that  he  could  not  understand  the  problem. 

3.  He  was  too to  express  any  opinion  on  the  subject. 

4.  Be  kind  to animals. 

III.  —  Funny,  Strange,   Odd 

1.  The  sailor  had  many adventures. 

2.  His remarks  set  the  table  in  a  roar. 

3.  He  was  dressed  in  an way. 

4.  Misery  makes bedfellows. 

5.  The  speaker  amused  his  audience  with stories. 

TV.  —  Mealthy,  Healthful,    Wholesome 

1.  A body  contributes  to  the  health  of  the  mind. 

2.  Apples  are  a food. 

'I.   food  makes  a man. 

4.  He  sought  for  a climate. 

5.  The  captain  was  a man. 


REVIEW  OF  ADJECTIVES,.  ;  \  ;.,';  ;'     .'Kdi: 

Y.  —  Madf  Angry 

1.  Be  ye ,  and  sin  not. 

2.  A dog  ran  down  the  street. 

3.  Paul,  thou  art  beside  thyself;  much  learning  doth  make  thee 

4.  This  unexpected  reply  made  the  boy . 


VI.— Ugly,  Ill'Natured 

1.  The  man  was  so that  few  persons  would  employ  him. 

2.  Hans  Andersen  wrote  "The Duckling." 

3.  It  is  hard  living  with  an person. 


CHAPTER   XLII 

REVIEW   OF   ADJECTIVES 
EXERCISE  84 

Find  the  adjectives  in  the  following  selection^  and  state  the 
office  of  each  :  — 

How  beautiful  is  night ! 
A  dewy  freshness  fills  the  silent  air ; 
No  mist  obscures,  nor  cloud  nor  speck  nor  stain 

Breaks  the  serene  of  heaven  : 
In  full-orbed  glory  yonder  moon  divine 
Rolls  through  the  dark  blue  depths ; 

Beneath  her  steady  ray 

The  desert  circle  spreads 
Like  the  round  ocean  girdled  with  the  sky. 

How  beautiful  is  night !— Southey. 


I0;>  ,  .,/  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  85 


What  is  an  adjective  ?  Into  what  two  classes  may  adjec- 
tives be  divided  ? 

Name  three  adjectives  that  are  used  to  point  out  things ; 
two  adjectives  that  express  a  definite  number ;  two  that  ex- 
press an  indefinite  number;  two  that  express  an  indefinite 
quantity ;  two  that  indicate  order  of  things  in  a  series. 

State  the  difference  in  meaning  between  the  and  an  or  a. 
Distinguish  between  the  use  of  an  and  a,  and  illustrate  by 
examples. 

Name  two  adjectives  that  change  their  form  to  denote  the 
plural  number.     Give  their  plural  forms. 

What  is  meant  by  the  comparison  of  adjectives.?  What 
are  the  three  degrees  of  comparison  called }  Define  each, 
and  give  an  example. 

How  is  the  comparative  formed }  Give  examples.  How 
is  the  superlative  formed  t     Give  examples. 

What  is  meant  by  irregular  comparison  }     Illustrate. 

Mention  two  adjectives  that  are  compared  by  means  of 
suffixes ;  two  that  are  compared  by  means  of  adverbs ;  two 
that  are  compared  irregularly ;  and  two  that  are  not  usually 
compared. 

Give  the  comparative  and  superlative  forms  of  few,  heavy ^ 
amiable,  swift,  useful,  fierce^  mighty,  witty ^  gentle,  good^ 
badf  late^  little,  ill,  muchy  many. 


CLASSES   OF  VERBS  103 

CHAPTER  XLIII 

CLASSES   OF   VERBS 
TRANSITIVE  AND   INTRANSITIVE  VERBS 

Point  out  the  verb  in  each  of  the  following  sentences,  name 
its  subject/  and  tell  which  word  is  used  as  the  object  ^  of  the 
verb :  — 

1.  Spiders  spin  webs. 

2.  Bees  make  honey. 

3.  Who  taught  them? 

Some  verbs,  like  the  examples  above,  require  objects  to 

complete  their  meaning;  other  verbs  do  not  require  objects. 

A  verb  that  requires  an  object  is  a  transitive  verb;  as, — 

Birds  build  nests.  Henry  threw  the  ball. 

A  verb  that  does  not  require  an  object  is  an  intransitive 
¥erb  ;  as, — 

Birdsy?)'.  The  sun  shines. 

In  a  few  instances  the  same  word  may  be  used  as  a  tran- 
sitive verb  in  one  sentence,  and  as  an  intransitive  verb  in 
another ;  as,  — 

The  wind  blows  the  dust.     (Transitive.) 
The  wind  blows.     (Intransitive.) 

1  See  page  14.  2  gee  page  46. 


r<^'  '  ';:..;.'■,-,'  ENGLISH  grammar 

EXERCISE  86 

Point  out  the   verbs  in  the  following  sentences^  and  tell 
in  each  case  whether  the  verb  is  transitive  or  intransitive :  — 

1.  He  shrugged  his  shoulders,  shook  his  head,  cast  up  his  eyes, 
but  said  nothing. 

2.  Each  takes  his  seat,  and  each  receives  his  share. 

3.  We  scatter  seeds  with  careless  hand. 

4.  A  tear  stood  in  his  bright  blue  eye.— Longfellow. 

5.  A  rill  of  water  trickles  down  the  cliff. 

6.  The  piper  advanced,  and  the  children  followed.  —  Browning. 

7.  A  pair  of  kingfishers  dart  back  and  forth  across  the  bay,  in 
flashes  of  living  blue. 

8.  Do  many  good  works,  and  speak  few  vanities. 

9.  We  carved  not  a  line,  and  we  raised  not  a  stone, 
But  we  left  him  alone  with  his  glory Wolfe. 

10.  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  firmament 
showeth  his  handiwork. 

11.  The  warrior  bowed  his  crested  head.  —  Hemans. 

1 2.  But  soon  I  heard  the  dash  of  oars, 
I  heard  the  pilot's  cheer. 

13.  The  fair  breeze  blew,  the  white  foam  flew.  —  Coleridge. 

14.  In  the  cold  moist  earth  we  laid  her,  when  the  forests  cast  the 

leaf. 

And  we  wept  that  one  so  lovely  should  have  a  life  so  brief. 

—  Bryant. 


VERBS    OF   INCOMPLETE   PREDICATION  I05 

EXERCISE  87 

Write  sentences  containing  the  following  words  used  (l) 
as  transitive  verbs ;  {2)  as  intransitive  verbs :  — 

learn  write  watch  strike  ride 

roll  see  read  fly  sing 

CHAPTER   XLIV 

VERBS   OF   INCOMPLETE    PREDICATION 

Which  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  form  a  predicate 
alone,  and  which  must  be  followed  by  another  word  to  com- 
plete their  meaning  ?  — 

1.  I  slip,  I  slide,  I  gloom,  I  glance, 

Among  my  skimming  swallows. 

2.  The  sun  is  warm,  the  sky  is  clear. 

3.  I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thirsting  flowers. 

A  verb  that  requires  an  additional  word  or  words  to  com- 
plete the  predicate  is  a  verb  of  incomplete  predication. 

When  the  verb  is  transitive,  the  predicate  is  completed  by 
the  object  of  the  action  ;  as,  — 

War  brings  sorrow. 

When  the  verb  is  intransitive,  the  predicate  is  completed 
by  a  word  or  words  describing  the  subject,  and  the  com- 
pleting adjunct  is  called  a  complement ;  as,  — 

The  sky  is  blue.  The  boy  was  an  orphan. 


I06  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Most  intransitive  verbs  have  a  complete  meaning  in  them- 
selves ;  as,  — 

The  rain/^/Zi".  The  wind  blows, 

A  few  intransitive  verbs  (as  be^  become^  appear^  looky  seem, 
and  the  like)  must  be  followed  by  a  noun  or  an  adjective  to 
complete  their  meaning  ;  as,  — 

He  is  a  statesman.  The  child  seems  cold. 

Such  verbs  of  incomplete  predication  are  sometimes  called 
copulative,  since  they  connect  or  couple  the  subject  with  a 
word  describing  the  subject ;  as,  — 

Washington  was  a  patriot.  She  looks  happy. 


EXERCISE  88 

Tell  whether  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  are  transi- 
tive or  intransitive,  name  the  object  of  each  transitive  verb, 
and  tell  what  completes  the  meaning  of  each  incomplete  intransi- 
tive verb  :  — 

1.  He  crept  softly  to  the  window. 

2.  The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold. —  Scott. 

3.  I  heard  the  bells  on  Christmas  Day 

Their  old,  familiar  carols  play.  —  Longfellow. 

4.  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever.  —  Keats. 

5.  The  daffodil  is  our  doorside  queen.  —  Bryant. 

6.  The  next  day  Congress  took  the  formal  vote  upon  the  reso- 
lution. 

7.  Behold  the  fowls  of  the  air.  —  Bible. 


ACTIVE  AND   PASSIVE   VOICE  I07 

8.  The  fish  swam  by  the  castle  wall, 

And  they  seemed  joyous,  each  and  all.  —  Byron. 

9.  Open  then  I  flung  the  shutter,  when,  with  many  a  flirt  and 

flutter. 
In  there  stepped  a  stately  raven  of  the  saintly  days  of  yore. 

—  POE. 

10.  The  snow  had  begun  in  the  gloaming, 

And  busily  all  the  night 
Had  been  heaping  field  and  highway 

With  a  silence  deep  and  white.  —  Lowell. 

EXERCISE  89 

Write  ( I )  five  sentences y  each  containing  a  verb  of  incom- 
plete predication  completed  by  a  nomi ;  {2)  five  sentences,  each 
containing  a  verb  of  incomplete  predication  completed  by  an 
adjective. 

CHAPTER  XLV 

ACTIVE   AND   PASSIVE   VOICE 

Tell  in  how  many  ways  each  thought  is  expressed  in  the 
following  sentences :  — 

1.  The  governor  signed  the  bill. 

2.  The  bill  was  signed  by  the  governor. 

3.  A  hound  chased  the  deer. 

4.  The  deer  was  chased  by  a  hound. 

A  transitive  verb  may  represent  its  subject  as  acting  or  as 
being  acted  upon. 


I08  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

A  transitive  verb  that  represents  its  subject  as  acting  is 
said  to  be  in  the  active  voice;  as,  Columbus  discovered 
America. 

A  transitive  verb  that  represents  its  subject  as  being  acted 
upon  is  said  to  be  in  the  passive  voice;  as,  America  zvas 
discovered  by  Columbus. 

The  object  of  the  verb  in  the  active  form  becomes  the 
subject  of  the  verb  in  the  passive  form.  The  active  voice 
makes  the  agent  prominent,  while  the  passive  voice  makes 
the  receiver  of  the  action  prominent. 

Some  verbs  usually  intransitive  become  transitive  by  means 
of  a  preposition,  and  take  the  passive  voice ;  as,  — 

He  laughed  at  them. 
They  were  laughed  at. 

EXERCISE  90 

Point  out  the  transitive  verbs  in  the  following  sentences^  and 
tell  the  voice  of  eachy  giving  in  each  case  a  reason  for  your 
statement :  — 

1.  The  frightened  animal  sought  the  open  country. 

2.  Our  guide  had  never  visited  the  cave. 

3.  The  building  was  destroyed  by  fire,  but  some  of  the  furniture 
was  saved. 

4.  The  guest  was  admitted  into  the  parlor. 

5.  The  portrait  attracted  his  notice  at  once. 

6.  The  petition  was  signed  by  a  number  of  prominent  citizens. 

7.  He  holds  him  with  his  glittering  eye.  —  Coleridge. 

8.  Many  interesting  discoveries  were  made  among  these  broken 
cliffs.  —  HawthornEc 


MODE  109 

9.   Here  the  canoe  was  driven  upon  the  beach,  and  the  whole 
party  landed. 

10.  The  farmer  swung  the  scythe  or  turned  the  hay, 
And  'twixt  the  heavy  swaths  his  children  were  at  play. 

—  Bryant. 

11.  On  Christmas  eve  the  bells  were  rung.  — Scott. 

12.  The  schoolmaster  swept  and  smoothed  the  ground  before  the 
door,  trimmed  the  long  grass,  trained  the  ivy  and  creeping  plants 
which  hung  their  drooping  heads  in  melancholy  neglect ;  and  gave  to 
the  outer  walls  a  cheery  air  of  home.  — Dickens. 

13.  A  little  fire  is  quickly  trodden  out. 

14.  The  great  iron  gateway  that  opened  into  the  court-yard  was 
locked. 

15.  Nothing  interrupted  the  stillness  of  the  scene. 


CHAPTER   XLVI 

MODE 

Find  in  the  follov^^ing  sentences  a  verb  that  asserts  some- 
thing as  a  fact,  one  that  asserts  something  as  merely  thought 
of  or  conceived,  and  one  that  expresses  a  command  :  — 

1.  He  speaks  distinctly. 

2.  If  thine  enemy  be  hungry,  give  him  bread  to  eat. 

3.  Speak  the  truth. 

The  manner  of  asserting  is  called  the  mode  of  j;he  verb. 
A  verb   that  asserts  a  thing   as  a  fact  or   asks  a  direct 
question  is  in  the  indicative  mode ;  as,  — 

The  river  is  deep. 
Is  the  river  deep? 


no  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

A  verb  that  expresses  something  as  conceived  rather  than 
as  actually  true  is  in  the  subjunctive  mode ;  as, : — 

If  he  were  ill,  he  would  inform  us. 
Take  heed,  lest  thou  fall. 

A  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mode  is  generally  preceded  by 
if,  though,  lest,  unless,  except,  or  some  similar  word ;  but  these 
words  are  not  always  followed  by  the  subjunctive.  When  the 
verb  in  a  conditional  clause  expresses  doubt,  it  is  in  the 
subjunctive  mode ;  but  when  it  expresses  probability  or 
certainty  it  is  in  the  indicative  mode ;  as,  — 

If  the  law  be  unjust,  it  should  be  repealed.     (Subjunctive.) 
If  the  law  is  unjust,  let  it  be  repealed.     (Indicative.) 

In  the  first  sentence  above,  doubt  is  implied  about  the 
un justness  of  the  law;  in  the  second  sentence,  the  unjustness 
is  assumed  as  a  fact. 

The  most  common  uses  of  the  subjunctive  mode  are  — 
(i)  To  express  a  condition  or  supposition;  as, — 

If  thou  be  a  king,  where  is  thy  crown  ? 

If  he  were  here  [but  he  is  not],  he  could  explain  the  matter. 

In  sentences  like  the  last,  the  subjunctive  expresses  a 
supposition  contrary  to  the  actual  fact,  and  refers  to  present 
time. 

(2)  To  express  a  wish  ;  as,  — 

O  that  the  day  were  done  ! 

(3)  To  express  purpose ;  as,  — 

Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged. 

Watch  ye  and  pray,  lest  ye  enter  into  temptation. 


MODE  III 

A  verb  that  expresses  a  command  or  an  entreaty  is  in  the 
imperative  mode  ;  as,  — 

Close  the  gate.  Forgive  us  our  debts. 

EXERCISE  91 

Tell  what  each  verb  expresses  in  the  following  sentences,  and 
name  its  mode :  — 

1.  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field. 

2.  I  stood  and  watched  by  the  window 
The  noiseless  work  of  the  sky. 

3.  I  stand  upon  my  native  hills  again. 

4.  Thine  own  friend  and  thy  father's  friend,  forsake  not.     ^ 

5 .  Return  ye  now  every  one  from  his  evil  way. 

6.  Though  this  be  madness,  yet  there  is  method  in  it. 

7.  Turn  away  thine  eyes,  lest  they  behold  vanity. 

8.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him. 

EXERCISE  92 

Tell  the  mode  of  each  italicized  verb  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, giving  reasons  for  your  statements :  — 

1.  Though  your  sins  be  as  scarlet,  they  shall  be  as  white  as  snow. 

2.  If  you  were  in  my  place,  you  would  think  differently. 

3.  If  I  were  hungry,  I  would  not  tell  thee. 

4.  Though  thou  detain  me,  I  will  not  eat  of  the  bread. 

5.  Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  co?ne  to  poverty. 

6.  Thy  kingdom  come.     Thy  will  be  done. 

7.  If  it  bear  the  test,  it  will  be  accepted. 


112  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

8.  If  it  bears  the  test,  it  will  not  be  used. 

9.  See  that  thou  tell  no  man. 

10.  Some  heavenly  ^owtr  guide  us  hence. 

11.  Judge  not,  that  ye  be  r\o\.  judged. 

12.  Beware,  lest  thou  be  led  into  temptation. 

13.  Last  night  the  moon  had  2,  golden  ring. 
And  to-night  no  moon  we  see.  —  Longfellow. 

14.  If  fortune  serve  me,  I'll  requite  this  kindness.  —  Shakespeare. 

EXERCISE  93 

(i)  Write  three  sentences,  each  containi^tg  verbs  in  the 
indicative  mode. 

(2)  Write  three  sentences,  each  containirig  verbs  in  the 
subjunctive  mode. 

(3)  Write  three  sentejices,  each  containing  verbs  in  the 
irnperative  mode. 

CHAPTER  XLVII 

THE   INFINITIVE 

(i)  Select  from  the  following  sentences  verb  forms  that  do 
not  assert,  but  that  name  actions,  like  nouns;  (2)  tell  how 
they  are  used :  — 

1 .  To  err  is  human. 

2.  They  intend  to  return  soon. 

3.  Doing  nothing  is  tiresome. 

The  verb  form  that  does  not  assert,  but  that  merely  names 
action  or  being,  like  a  noun,  is  called  an  infinitive. 


THE   INFINITIVE  113 

There  are  two  infinitives,  the  simple  infinitive,  and  the 
infinitive  in  -ing. 

The  simple  infinitive  is  the  simple  form  of  the  verb,  alone 
or  preceded  by  to  ;  as,  — 

They  can  go.     I  expect  to  go. 

The  simple  form,  without  to,  is  used  alone,  or  after  a  few 
of  the  most  common  verbs,  such  as  may,  can,  tmist,  shall, 
will,  bid,  dare,  do,  let,  make,  need,  hear,  and  see ;  as.  Why 
not  sing?     Do  sing. 

The  form  with  to  is  employed  in  most  of  the  uses  of  the 
simple  infinitive.^ 

The  infinitive  in  -ing,  also  called  the  participial  infinitive  or 
gerund,  is  formed  by  adding  -ing  to  the  simple  form  of  the 
verb;  as, — 

Learn  the  luxury  of  doing  good. 

The  infinitive,  like  a  noun,  is  used  as  subject  or  object; 
and,  like  a  verb,  it  may  take  an  object,  if  transitive,  and 
may  have  adverbial  modifiers  ;  as,  — • 

1.  To  retreat  is  impossible. 

2.  I  decided  to  remain  at  home. 

3.  There  is  no  prospect  oi  finding  the  treasure. 

^  To  was  originally  a  preposition,  used  with  the  infinitive  only  in  certain  rela- 
tions. It  is  now  a  mere  prefix,  or  sign  of  the  infinitive  in  most  of  its  uses.  As 
this  is  the  only  one  of  the  infinitive  forms  that  is  distinctive,  it  is  commonly  called 
the  infinitive.     The  other  forms  are,  however,  equally  true  infinitives  in  origin  and 


114  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  94 


Classify  the  infinitives  in  the  folloiving  sentences^  giving 
reasons  for  your  statements :  — 

1.  I  like  to  look  on  a  scene  like  this. 

2.  Let  music  swell  the  breeze. 

3.  The  rain  had  ceased  to  patter,  and  now  began  to  fall  with  a 
steady  determination. 

4.  There  was  no  difficulty  in  finding  the  river. 

5.  But  where  to  find  that  happiest  spot  below, 

Who  can  direct,  when  all  pretend  to  know?—  Goldsmith. 

6.  A  man  has  no  more  right  to  say  an  uncivil  thing  than  to  act 
one.  —  Dr.  Johnson. 

7.  He  hears  the  parson  pray  and  preach.  —  Longfellow. 

8.  As  he  approached  the  stream,  his  heart  began  to  thump. 

—  Irving, 

9.  But  it  must  be  understood  that  we  did  not  go  to  see  the 
Pyramids.     We  went  only  to  look  at  them.  — Amelia  B.  Edwards. 

10.  There  are  two  opposite  ways  by  which  some  men  make  a 
figure  in  the  world ;  one  by  talking  faster  than  they  think,  and  the 
other  by  holding  their  tongues  and  not  thinking  at  all.  — Irving. 

EXERCISE  95 

Write  sentences  containing  (i)  simple  infinitives ;  (2)  parti- 
cipial infinitives  formed  f7'om  the  following  verbs  :  — 


find 

break 

choose 

lose 

sell 

build 

hear 

spend 

meet 

have 

.THE   PARTICIPLE  II5 

CHAPTER   XLVIII 

THE    PARTICIPLE 

Tell  of  what  verbs  the  italicized  words  are  forms,  and 
which  parts  of  speech  they  most  resemble:  — 

1.  Out  came  the  children  running. 

2.  We  beheld  a  horseman  approaching  leisurely. 

3.  The  company,  seated  round  the  fire,  welcomed  the  stranger. 

4.  We  sailed  by  an  island  covered  with  large  trees. 

The  verb  form  that  is  used  as  an  adjective  is  called  a 
participle.  The  participle  does  not  assert,  but  assumes  or 
implies  action  or  being.  It  takes  modifiers  like  a  verb,  but 
qualifies  a  noun  or  pronoun,  like  an  adjective.  The  participle 
of  a  transitive  verb  takes  an  object. 

A  participle  that  denotes  unfinished  action  is  a  present  or 
imperfect  participle ;  as,  hearing,  writing. 

A  participle  that  denotes  finished  action  is  a  past  or  perfect 
participle;  as,  heard,  written. 

EXERCISE  96 

Select  the  participles  in  the  following  sentences,  state  the 
kind,  and  tell  what  each  modifies :  — ■ 

1.  I  heard  my  own  mountain  goats  bleating  aloft.  —  Campbell. 

2.  ToiHng,  —  rejoicing,  —  sorrowing, 

Onward  through  life  he  goes.  — Longfellow. 

3.  The  passengers,  warned  by  the  helmsman,  retreated  into  the 
cabin.  — LossiNG. 

4.  While  I  lay  musing  on  my  pillow,  I  heard  the  sound  of  little 
feet  pattering  outside  of  the  door.  —  Irving. 


Il6  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

5.  Heaped  in  the  hollows  of  the  grove,  the  withered  leaves  lie 
dead.  —  Bryant. 

6.  Looking  out  of  the  window,  I  saw  a  crow  perched  upon  the 
edge  of  the  nest.  —  burroughs. 

7.  Yonder  sat  a  tailor  cross-legged,  making  a  waistcoat;  near 
him,  stretched  on  his  face  at  full  length,  sprawled  a  basket- maker 
with  his  half-woven  basket  and  bundles  of  rushes  beside  him ;  and 
here,  close  against  the  main  entrance,  lay  a  blind  man  and  his  dog ; 
the  master  asleep,  the  dog  keeping  watch.  — Amelia  B.  Edwards. 

8.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again.  —  Bryant. 

EXERCISE  97 

(i)  Copy  from  your  Reader  six  sentences  containing  present 
participles.      Underline  the  participles. 

(2)  Copy  from  your  Reader  six  sentences  containing  perfect 
participles. 

FORMS  OF  THE  VERB   IN   -mgr 

The  verb  form  ending  in  -ing  has  four  uses  :  — • 

(i)  As  a  present  participle  ;  thus,  — 

He  hears  his  daughter's  voice,  singing  in  the  village  choir. 

—  Longfellow. 

(2)  As  an  infinitive  ;  thus,  — • 

They  spent  the  evening  in  singing  carols. 

(3)  As  a  noun  ;  thus,  — 

The  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  has  come.  — Bible. 

(4)  As  an  adjective ;  thus,  — 

A  singing  bird  on  every  bough.  —  Howitt. 


THE  PARTICIPLE  II7 

It  will  be  observed  from  the  foregoing  examples,  that  the 
present  participle  and  the  infinitive  in  -ing  both  have  some 
of  the  constructions  of  the  verb,  but  that  the  participle  is 
an  adjective  in  its  use,  while  the  infinitive  is  a  noun.  The 
verbal  noun  is  similar  to  the  infinitive,  but  it  is  more  de- 
cidedly a  noun,  while  the  infinitive  is  more  decidedly  a  verb. 
Thus  the  verbal  noun  may  have  an  article  and  be  joined  to 
a  following  noun  by  a  preposition,  just  as  an  ordinary  noun 
may  be,  but  it  cannot  take  an  object  as  an  infinitive  can. 

EXERCISE  98 

Distinguish  between  the  different  forms  of  the  verb  in  -ing 
in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell  how  each  is  used:  — 

1.  The  darting  swallows  soar  and  sing. 

2.  After  standing  a  long  time  at  the  end  of  the  wharf,  gazing  sea- 
ward, the  strangers  began  to  stray  into  the  town. 

3.  Coming  back  we  met  two  or  three  more  regiments. 

4.  I  had  now  given  up  all  expectation  of  finding  the  road. 

5.  One  could  wander  for  miles  through  this  forest  without  meeting 
a  person,  or  hearing  a  sound,  other  than  the  occasional  chatter  of  a 
squirrel,  the  song  of  a  bird,  or  the  sighing  of  the  wind  through  the 
branches  overhead. 

6.  Hark  !  from  the  murmuring  clods  I  hear 
Glad  voices  of  the  coming  year.  —  Bryant. 

7.  There's  a  merry  brown  thrush  sitting  up  in  a  tree. 

—  Lucy  Larcom. 

8.  But  sorrow  returned  with  the  dawning  of  morn, 

And  the  voice  in  my  dreaming  ear  melted  away. 

—Campbell. 


Il8  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  99 


Write  three  sentence s^  each  containing  a  form  of  the  verb  in 
•ing  used  (i)  as  a  participial  infinitive ;  (2)  as  a  verbal  noun; 
(S)  <^s  a  present  participle  ;  (4)  as  a  participial  adjective. 


CHAPTER  XLIX 

TENSE 

Tell  what  time  each  verb  expresses  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  mention  the  different  forms  of  the  verb  :  — 

*  I.   I  see  the  light. 

2.  I  saw  the  light. 

3.  I  shall  see  the  light. 

The  form  of  the  verb  that  expresses  the  time  of  the  action 
is  called  iense. 

Since  there  are  three  divisions  of  time — present,  past,  and 
future,  there  are  three  leading  tenses  —  present,  past,  and 
future. 

A  verb  that  denotes  present  time  is  in  the  present  tense; 
as,  I  hear. 

A  verb  that  denotes  past  time  is  in  the  past  tense;  as, 
I  heard. 

A  verb  that  denotes  future  time  is  in  the  future  tense ;  as, 
I  shall  hear.    ' 

Besides  these  three  leading  tenses,  there  are  three  perfect 
tenses,  which  denote  action  as  finished  or  completed. 


TENSE  119 

A  verb  that  denotes  an  action  as  completed  at  the  present 
time  is  in  the  present  perfect  tense ;  as,  — 

I  have  heard  the  speaker. 
He  has  finished  the  work. 

A  verb  that  denotes  an  action  as  having  been  completed 
before  some  past  time  is  in  the  past  perfect  or  pluperfect  tense  ; 

as, — 

He  had  heard  the  report. 

A  verb  that  denotes  an  action  which  is  to  be  completed  before 
some  future  time  is  in  the  future  perfect  tense;  as, — 

I  shall  have  heard  the  lecture. 
He  will  have  heard  the  lecture. 

FORMATION   OF  TENSES 

Tell  which  tenses  are  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  verb 
itself,  and  which  are  made  by  the  aid  of  other  verbs :  — 

TENSES    OF    THE    INDICATIVE    MODE 

Present.  I  write  Present  Perfect.  I  have  written 

Past.        I  wrote  Past  Perfect.        I  had  written 

Future.    I  shall  write  Future  Perfect.   I  shall  have  ivritten 

Only  two  tenses,  the  present  and  the  past,  are  indicated  by 
the  form  of  the  verb  itself.  The  other  tenses  are  expressed 
by  the  aid  of  other  verbs,  called  auxiliary  verbs. 

The  future  tense  is  made  up  of  the  verb  shall  or  will  and 
the  simple  infinitive  of  the  verb  expressing  the  action. 


120  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Shall  is  used  in  the  first  person,  and  will  in  the  second  and  third 
persons,  to  announce  future  action.     (See  Chapter  LIII.) 

The  present  perfect  tense  is  made  up  of  the  present  of  the 
auxiliary  verb  have  and  the  perfect  participle  of  the  principal 
verb. 

The  past  perfect  tense  is  made  up  of  the  past  of  the  auxil- 
iary verb  have  and  the  perfect  participle  of  the  principal  verb. 

The  future  perfect  tense  is  made  up  of  the  auxiliary  shall 
or  will  and  the  perfect  infinitive  of  the  verb  expressing  the 
action. 

EXERCISE    100 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentenceSy  and  name  the 
tense  of  each  :  — 

1.  We  started  late  in  the  afternoon  of  the  first  day. 

2.  There  is  a  land  of  pure  delight. 

3.  I  had  now  come  in  sight  of  the  house. 

4.  A  ship- of- war  arrived  unexpectedly  in  the  bay. 

5.  The  walls  of  this  most  curious  and  interesting  fortress  have 
probably  lost  much  of  their  original  height. 

6.  Over  the  sea  our  galleys  went. 

7.  The  moon  had  risen,  but  the  breeze  had  dropped. 

8.  A   cuckoo's   nest   is   a  very  simple   affair,  but   it  will   bear 
close  study.  —  M.  Thompson, 

9.  Short  space  he  stood,  —  then  waved  his  hand : 
Down  sunk  the  disappearing  band.  — Scott. 

10.  It  is  a  strange  thing  how  little,  in  general,  people  know 
about  the  sky.  — Ruskin. 


PERSON   AND   NUMBER  121 

11.  Other   soldiers   heard   the   noise,  and  ran  hastily  from   the 
barracks  to  assist  their  comrades.  —  Hawthorne. 

12.  My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 

A  rainbow  in  the  sky ; 
So  was  it  when  my  life  began, 
So  is  it  now  I  am  a  man.  —  Wordsworth. 

EXERCISE    101 

Write  six  tense  forms  for  each  of  the  following  verbs^  to 
be  used  with  the  stcbject  I: — ■ 


find 

break 

come 

drive 

forget 

give 

know 

see 

draw 

sell 

CHAPTER    L 

PERSON    AND    NUMBER 

Tell  how  many  forms  of  the  verb  hear  are  used  with 
the  different  subjects  in  the  following,  and  give  the  end- 
ings of  the  special  forms :  — 

Singular  Plural 

First  Person.  I  hear  We  hear 

Second  Person.       Thou  hearest  You  hear 

Third  Person,         He  hears  They  hear 

The  different  forms  that  a  verb  takes  to  correspond  to  the 
person  and  the  number  of  its  subject  are  called  person  and 
number  forms. 

The  second  person   singular  has  the  ending  est  or  st  in 


122  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

both   the    present    and   the    past    tenses    of   the    indicative 
mode;  as, — 

Present    Thou  plantesf;     thou  sees*. 
Past         Thou  planteds*;  thou  saws*. 

The  third  person  singular  has,  in  the  present  indicative, 
the  ending  s  or  es  and  the  old  forms  eth  or  th;  as, — 

She  sleeps  or  she  sleepe^Tit. 

He  does  or  he  ^oth  or  he  doeife. 

The  forms  with  thou  and  the  forms  in  th  or  eth  are  now 
seldom  used,  except  in  prayer  and  in  poetry. 

With  the  exception  of  the  verb  be,  the  first  person  sin- 
gular and  the  plural  forms  for  all  the  persons  have  no 
endings  to  mark  person  or  number. 

The  verb  be  has  different  forms  for  the  singular  and  the 
plural  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  the  indicative 
mode;  as, — 

Singular  Plural 

I  am  We,  you,  or  they  are 

I  was  We,  you,  or  they  were 

EXERCISE   102 

Write  the  forms  of  the  following  verbs  required  for  the 
subjects  J,  thou,  he,  and  we^  in  the  indicative  present :  — 


draw 

hear 

move 

speak 

sing 

see 

stand 

choose 

lift    ' 

come 

find 

forget 

know 

take 

stand 

FORMS   OF   VERBS  123 

CHAPTER    LI 

FORMS    OF    VERBS 

Tell   how   the    past   tenses    of    the    following   verbs   are 
formed :  — 


Present 

Past 

Perf.  Part. 

Present 

Past 

Perf.  Part. 

plant 

planted 

planted 

fall 

fell- 

fallen 

look 

looked 

looked 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

live 

lived 

lived 

give 

gave 

given 

A  verb  that  forms  its  past  tense  by  adding  ed  or  d  to  the 
present  is  a  regular   verb;   as,  walk,  walked;   move,  moved. 

A  verb  that  does  not  form  its  past  tense  by  adding  ed  or  d 
to  the  present  is  an  irregular  verb;  as,  drive,  drove;  give^ 
gave. 

Some  verbs  have  both  regular  and  irregular  forms ;  as, 
build,  builded  ox  btiilt ;  kneel,  kneeled  ox  knelt. 

Verbs  that  have  more  than  one  form  for  the  past  tense  or 
perfect  participle  are  said  to  be  redundant. 

The  present  tense,  the  past  tense,  and  the  perfect  participle 
are  called  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb,  since  all  the  other 
parts  can  be  found  when  these  three  parts  are  known. 

A  verb  that  lacks  any  of  the  principal  parts  is  called 
defective;  as, — 

Present  Past  Perfect  Participle 

can  could  

may  might  

shall  should  

will  would  


124 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


LIST   OF    IRREGULAR   VERBS 


Present 

Past 

Perf,  Part. 

Present 

Past 

Perf.  Part. 

abide 

abode 

abode 

burn 

r  burned 
( burnt 

burned 

arise 

arose 

arisen 

burnt 

(  awoke 
(  awaked 

awoke  • 

burst 

burst 

burst 

awake 

awaked 

buy 

bought 

bought 

bear 

lu„_. 

rborn 
(  borne 

cast 

cast 

cast 

r     ,   •      r    ,  -,  ^  uurc 
[to  bring  forthj  ) 

catch 

caught 

caught 

bear 

[to  carry] 

■  bore 

borne 

chide 

chid 

chidden 

( beaten 
(beat 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

beat 

beat 

cleave 

r  clove 
(cleft 

cloven,  adj. 

begin 

began 

begun 

[to  split] 

cleft 

behold 

beheld 

beheld 

cling 

clung 

clung 

bend 

bent 

bent 

clothe 

'clothed 
".clad 

clothed 

f  bereaved. 

v^lLflliC 

clad 

bereave 

bereft 

(bereft 

come 

came 

come 

cost 

cost 

cost 

beseech 

besought   besought 

rbade 
(bid 

bidden 

creep 

crept 

crept 

bid 

bid 

cut 

cut 

cut 

deal 

dealt 

dealt 

bind 

bound 

bound 

bite 

bit 

( bitten 
(bit 

dig 
do 

dug 
did 

dug 
done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

blow 

blew 

blown 

r  dreamed    dreamed 

break 

broke 

broken 

dream 

1  dreamt 

dreamt 

breed 

bred 

bred 

(  drunken,  adj. 
(  drunk,  drank 

bring 

brought 

brought 

drink 

drank 

build 

built 

built 

drive 

drove 

driven 

FORMS   OF  VERBS 


125 


Present 

dwell 

eat 

fall 

feed 

feel 

fight 

find 

flee 

fling 

fly 

forbear 

forget 

forsake 

freeze 

get 
gild 

gird 

give 

go 

grind 

grow 

hang 

have 
hear 

heave 


Past 
dwelt 
ate 
fell 
fed 
felt 
fought 
found 
fled 
flung 
flew 
forbore 
forgot 
forsook 
froze 

got 

gilded 

f  girded 
I  girt 

gave 

went 

ground 

grew 
I  hung 
I  hanged 

had 

heard 

ihove 
heaved 


Perf.  Part. 

dwelt 

eaten 

fallen 

fed 

felt 

fought 

found 

fled 

flung 

flown 

forborne 

forgotten 

forsaken 

frozen 

{gotten 
got 
r  gilded 

(gilt,  adj. 

girded 

girt 

given 

gone 

ground 

grown 

hung 

hanged 

had 

heard 

hove 

heaved 


Present 

Past 

hide 

hid 

hit 

hit 

hold 

held 

hurt 

hurt 

keep 

kept 

kneel 

r  kneeled 
(knelt 

knit 

knitted 
knit 

know 

knew 

lay 

laid 

lead 

led 

lean 

1  leaned 
I  leant . 

leap 

leaped 
leapt 

learn 

learned 
.  learnt 

leave 

left 

lend 

lent 

let 

let 

he 

[to  recline] 

■lay 

light 

lighted 
lit 

lose 

lost 

make 

made 

mean 

meant 

meet 

met 

Perf.  Part. 
hidden 
hit 
held 
hurt 
kept 
kneeled 
knelt 
knitted 
knit 
known 
laid 
led 

leaned 
leant 
leaped 
leapt 
learned 
learnt 
left 
lent 
let 

lain 

lighted 

Ht 

lost 

made 

meant 

met 


126 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


Present 

Past 

Perf.  Part. 

Present 

Past     , 

Perf.  Part. 

pass 

passed 

J  passed 
(past 

shred 

shred 

shred 

shrink 

shrank 

shrunk 

pay 

paid 

paid 

shut 

shut 

shut 

pen 

penned 
pent 

penned 

sing 

sang 

sung 

pent 

■  sunken, 

adj. 

.sunk 

put 

put 

put 

sink 

sank 

quit 

1  quitted 
Iquit 

quitted 

sit 

sat 

sat 

quit 

slay 

slew 

slain 

read 

read 

read 

sleep 

slept 

slept 

rend 
ride 

rent 
rode 

rent 
ridden 

slide 

slid 

slidden 
.slid 

ring 

rang 

rung 

sling 

slung 

slung 

rise 

rose 

risen 

slink 

slunk 

slunk 

run 

ran 

run 

slit 

sUt 

slit 

say 

said 

said 

r  smelled 
1  smelt 

smelled 

see 

saw 

seen 

smell 

smelt 

seek 

sought 

sought 

1  sodden,  adj. 
1  seethed 

smite 

smote 

smitten 

seethe 

seethed 

sow 

sowed 

Jsown 
I  sowed 

sell 

sold 

sold 

send 

sent 

sent 

speak 

spoke 

spoken 

set 

set 

set 

speed 

sped 

sped 

shake 

shook 

shaken 

spell 

'  spelled 
spelt 

spelled 

shed 

shed 

shed 

spelt 

shine 

shone 

shone 

spend 

spent 

spent 

shoe 

shod 

shod 

spill 

spilt 

spilt 

shoot 

shot 

shot 

spin 

spun 

spun 

show 

showed 

shown 
.  showed 

spread 

spread 

spread 

spring 

sprang 

sprung 

AUXILIARY  VERBS 


127 


Present 

Past 

Perf,  Part. 

Present 

Past 

Perf.  Part. 

stand 

stood 

stood 

thrive 

1  throve 

thriven 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

1  thrived 

thrived 

sting 

stung 

stung 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

strew 

strewed 

strewn 
.  strewed 

thrust 

thrust 

thrust 
f  trodden 

stride 

strode 

stridden 

tread 

trod 

(trod 

strike 

struck 

1  stricken 
(struck      • 

wake 

Jwoke 
1  waked 

woke 
waked 

string 

strung 

strung 

wear 

wore 

worn 

strive 

strove 

striven 

weave 

wove 

woven 

swear 

swore 

sworn 

weep 

wept 

wept 

sweat 

sweat 

sweat 

1  wetted 

wetted 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

wet 

(wet 

wet 

swim 

swam 

swum 

win 

won 

won 

swing 
take 

swung 
took 

swung 
taken 

wind 

wound 

wound 

teach 

taught 

taught 

work 

worked 

r  wrought, 

\                  adj. 

tear 

tore 

torn 

( worked 

tell 

told 

told 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

think 

thought 

thought 

write 

wrote 

written 

CHAPTER   LII 

AUXILIARY  VERBS 

Compare  the  italicized  verbs  in  the  follov^^ing  sentences, 
and  tell  which  express  their  own  proper  meanings  and  which 
help  other  verbs  to  express  their  meanings  :  — 

I.  Trees  have  roots.  2.   The  leaves  have  fallen. 

3.  It  was  an  ancient  mariner. 

4.  How  cheerfully  the  week  was  spent ! 


128  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Verbs  that  are  used  to  help  or  complete  the  conjugation  of 
other  verbs,  are  said  to  be  used  as  auxiliaries,  and  are  then 
called  auxiliary  verbs ;  as, — 

The  rain  had  ceased. 

EXERCISE   103 

Point  out  the  verbs  in  the  followifig  sentences,  and  show 
which  are  tcsed  as  auxiliary  verb»:  — 

1.  The  days  are  cold,  the  nights  are  long. 

2.  The  sower's  task  is  done. 

3.  Some  of  the  men  had  no  muskets,  and  almost  all  were  without 
bayonets. 

4.  The  boats  had  difficulty  in  landing. 

5.  I  have  had  playmates  :  I  have  had  companions. 

6.  By  fairy  hands  their  knell  is  rung. 

7.  There  was  a  sound  of  revelry  by  night. 

8.  The  cabin  was  surrounded  by  a  dense  forest. 

9.  They  know  not  what  they  do. 

10.  He  did  receive  the  message. 

11.  His  face  did  shine  as  the  sun. 

12.  I  shall  not  look  upon  his  like  again. 

13.  If  I  will  that  he  tarry  till  I  come,  what  is  that  to  thee? 

14.  He  will  not  do  the  work. 

15.  Who  trusts  the  strength  will  with  the  burden  g-row. 

16.  .  The  mountain  and  the  squirrel 

Had  a  quarrel. 

The  verbs  have,  do,  shall,  will,  and  be  are  used  as  auxiliary- 
verbs  v^ith  the  participles  or  infinitives  of  other  verbs  to  form 
tense  and  voice.     They  have  the  following  forms  :  — 


AUXILIARY  VERBS 


129 


PRESENT 

Have 


I.  — THE  VERB  Have 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS 
PAST  PERFECT  PARTICIPLE 

had  had 


INDICATIVE   MODE 


PRESENT  TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

I  have  We  have 

Thou  ^  hast  You  have 

He  has  They  have 


PAST  TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

I  had  We  had 

Thou  hadst  You  had 

He  had  They  had 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 
present  tense 

Singular       Plural 
(If)  I  have    (If)  we  have 
(If)  thou  have  (If)  you  have 
(If)  he  have   (If)  they  have 


PAST  TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

(If)   I  had  (If)  we  had 

(If)   thou  had  (If)   you  had 

(If)   he  had  (If)  they  had 


IMPERATIVE  MODE 

Singular 

Plural 

Have  (thou) 

Have  (ye  or  you) 

INFINITIVES 

(To)  have 

Having 

PARTICIPLES 

Present 

Perfect 

Having 

had 

1  In  ordinary  speech,  the  pronoun  you  has  taken  the  place  of  the  singular  form 
thou  ;  but  you  is  plural,  and  takes  a  plural  verb. 


I30  f  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Have  as  an  Auxiliary  Verb 

The  verb  have  is  used  as  auxiliary  with  the  perfect  parti- 
ciple of  a  verb,  to  form  the  perfect  tenses,  each  part  of  have 
forming  the  corresponding  perfect;  as, — 

Present  Perfect.  I  have  seen 

Past  Perfect.  I  had  seen 

Future  Perfect.  I  shall  have  seen 

Perfect  Infinitives.  (To)   have  seen ;  having  seen 

Perfect  Participle.  Having  seen 

Have  as  an  Independent  Verb 

When  have  expresses  possession  it  is  an  independent  verb ; 

as, — 

Birds  of  the  air  have  nests. 

EXERCISE   104 
Tell  whether  the  verb  have  in  the  following  sentences  is  an 
indepefident  verb  or  an  atixiliary  verb,  giving  a  reason  in  each 
case  : — 

1.  If  you  have  tears,  prepare  to  shed  them  now.  — Shakespeare, 

2.  "  Have  then  thy  wish  !  "     He  whistled  shrill, 
And  he  was  answered  from  the  hill. —  Scott. 

3.  Yes  :  he  had  lived  to  shame  me  from  my  sneen  —  Taylor. 

4.  The  sun  had  scarcely  risen  when  the  messenger  arrived. 

5.  Greatly  begin  !  though  you  have  time 
But  for  a  line,  be  that  subH me.  — Lowell. 

6.  The  things  which  I  have  seen,  I  now  can  see  no  more. 

7.  The  fondness  for  rural  life  among  the  higher  classes  of  the  Eng- 
lish, has  had  a  great  and  salutary  effect  upon  the  national  character. 

—  Irving. 


AUXILIARY   VERBS 


131 


CHAPTER   LIII 

AUXILIARY   WE.'R'BS.— Continued 

11.  — Shall 
present  tense  past  tense 

Singular  Plural  Singular  Plural 

I  shall  We  shall  I  should  We  should 

Thou  shalt  You  shall  Thou  shouldst  You  should 

He  shall  They  shall  He  should  They  should 

III— Will 


PRESENT   TENSE 

PAST 

TENSE 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

I  will 

We  will 

I  would 

We  would 

Thou  wilt 

You  will 

Thou  wouldst 

You  would 

He  will 

They  will 

He  would 

They  would 

Sha//  and  wi/f  are  used  with  the  infinitive  of  a  verb,  to  form 
the  future  tense.  Sha//  is  an  auxiliary  of  the  future  in  the 
first  person,  and  wi//  in  the  second  and  third  persons ;  as,  — 

I  ska//  pass  the  house  this  afternoon. 
You  wi//  be  to(5  late. 
He  wi//  bring  the  papers. 

To  make  a  promise  or  to  express  the  determination  of  the 
speaker,  wi//  is  used  in  the  first  person  and  s/ta//  in  the  second 
and  third  persons;  as, — 

I  wi//  do  the  errand. 

I  wi//  have  my  bond. 

You  s/ia//  not  escape. 

He  s/ia//  receive  the  reward. 


132  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

Shall  is  used  in  asking  questions  in  the  first  person  ;  as,  — 

Shall  I  ring  the  bell  ?  (The  action  is  dependent  on  the  will  of  the 
person  addressed.) 

Either  shall  or  will  is  used,  according  to  the  answer 
expected,  in  asking  questions  in  the  second  and  third  persons  ; 
as, — 

Shall  you  sign  the  paper?     (I  shall  sign  the  paper.) 

Will  you  give  me  the  address?     (I  will gwQ  you  the  address.) 

Should  and  would,  in  corresponding  cases,  are  used  in  the 
same  manner  as  shall  and  will ;  thus,  — 

I  shall  return  the  book,  or  I  should  return  the  book. 
You  will  find  the  tree,  or  you  would  find  the  tree. 

EXERCISE  105 

Explain  each  use  of  shall  and  of  will  in  the  following 
sentences:  — 

1.  To-day  the  vessel  shall  be  launched.  — Longfellow. 

2.  Take  care  of  your  spirit  and  conduct,  and  your  reputation  will 
take  care  of  itself.  —  Hamilton. 

3.  You  will  compel  me  then  to  read  the  will.  —  Shakespeare. 

4.  Shall  I  descend?     And  will  you  give  me  leave?  — Shakespeare, 

5.  Hear  me,  for  I  will  speak.  — Shakespeare. 

6.  Will  you  be  patient?     Will  you  stay  awhile?— Shakespeare. 

7.  If  we  fail,  it  can  be  no  worse  for  us.  But  we  shall  not  fail. 
The  cause  will  raise  up  armies ;  the  cause  will  create  navies.— Webster. 

8.  All  that  breathe  will  share  thy  destiny.  —  Bryant. 

9.  Choose  ye  this  day  whom  ye  will  serve. 


AUXILIARY  VERBS  133 

EXERCISE   106 

(i)  Copy  the  following  sentences,  filling  the  blanks  with  a 
form  of  shall  or  will,  (2)  State  a  reason  for  the  use  of  each 
word  inserted :  — 

1.  We go  if  it  does  not  rain. 

2.   you  have  hot  or  cold  tea? 

3.  The  work probably  be  finished  to-night. 

4.  Whither  thou  goest,  I  go;  and  where  thou  lodgest,  I 

lodge. 

5.  I  lift  up  mine  eyes  unto  the  hills. 

6.   I  find  you  at  home? 

7.  He  said  he  -^ —  not  accept  the  explanation. 

8.  I  be  pleased  to  hear  from  you. 

CHAPTER   LIV 

AUXILIARY   VERBS.  —  Continued 
IV.— CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  Be 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS 
Present  Past  Perfect  Participle 

Be,  am  was  been  ^ 

INDICATIVE  MODE 
PRESENT  TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

I  am  We  are 

Thou  art  You  are 

He  is  They  are 

1  The  forms  of  the  verb  be  are  derived  from  three  different  verbs,  now  repre« 
sented  by  the  forms  be,  am^  and  was. 


134  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

PAST  TENSE 

I  was  We  were 

Thou  wast  (wert)  You  were 

He  was  They  were 

FUTURE   TENSE 

I  shall  be  We  shall  be 

Thou  wilt  be  You  will  be 

He  will  be  They  will  be 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

I  have  been  We  have  been 

Thou  hast  been  You  have  been 

He  has  been  They  have  been 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE 

I  had  been  We  had  been 

Thou  hadst  been  You  had  been 

He  had  been  They  had  been 

FUTURE   PERFECT  TENSE 

I  shall  have  been  We  shall  have  been 

Thou  wilt  have  been  You  will  have  been 

He  will  have  been  They  will  have  been 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 
present  tense 

Singular  Plural 

(If)  I  be  (If)  we  be 

(If)  thou  be  (If)  you  be 

(If)  he  be  (If)  they  be 


AUXILIARY   VERBS 


135 


(If)   I  were 
(If)   thou  wert 
(If)  he  were 


Singular 
Be  (thou) 


PAST  TENSE 

(If)  we  were 
(If)  you  were 
(If)  they  were 

IMPERATIVE  MODE 
PRESENT  TENSE 

Plural 
Be  (ye  or  you) 


INFINITIVES 

Present  (To)   be  Being 

Perfect  (To)   have  been  Having  been 


Present 
Being 


PARTICIPLES 

Perfect  Compound  Perfect 


been 


having  been 


He  as  an  Auxiliary  Verb 

The  different  forms  of  the  verb  be  are  used  as  auxiliary  — 

(i)  With  the  perfect  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  to  make 
the  passive  voice  ;  as,  — 

I  am  seen  I  have  been  seen 

I  was  seen  I  had  been  seen 

I  shall  be  seen  '  I  shall  have  been  seen 

(2)  With  the  present  participle  of  a  verb,  to  make  the  pro- 
gressive form.  The  progressive  form  represents  an  action 
as  continuing  or  progressing  ;  as,  — 

I  am  reading  I  have  been  reading 

I  was  reading  I  had  been  reading 

I  shall  be  reading  I  shall  have  been  reading 


136  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Be  as  an  Independent  Verb 

When  not  thus  used  with  the  participle  of  another  verb,  be 
is  an  independent  verb.     It  may  then  — 

(i)  Express  existence;  as,  God  is. 

(2)  Be  used  as  a  copula,  connecting  its  subject  to  a  word 
or  words  describing  the  subject;  as,  Life  is  real. 

EXERCISE  107 

Explain  the  use  of  the  verb  he  in  each  of  the  following 
examples :  — 

1.  Life  is  real!     Life  is  earnest !  — Longfellow. 

2.  I  have  been  a  stranger  in  a  strange  land. 

3.  The  harp,  his  sole  remaining  joy, 

Was  carried  by  an  orphan  boy.  — Scott. 

4.  Yarmouth  was  a  walled  town,  and  a  good  part  of  the  ancient 
enclosure  has  been  preserved. 

5.  If  money  had  been  needed  before,  it  was  still  more  needed 
now. 

6.  This  was  accomplished  in  less  than  an  hour's  time. 

7.  Trade  with  the  colonies  was  forbidden. 

8.  Old  Kaspar's  work  was  done, 
And  he  before  his  cottage  door 

Was  sitting  in  the  sun.  —  Southey. 

9.  While  we  were  talking,  a  third  messenger  arrived. 
10.   Somewhere  the  birds  are  singing  evermore. 

12.   O  sweet  and  strange  it  seems  to  me,  that  ere  this  day  is  done, 
The  voice,  that  now  is  speaking,  may  be  beyond  the  sun. 

—  Tennyson. 
12.  The  city  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 


AUXILIARY   VERBS  137 

13.  The  great  iron  gateway  that  opened  into  the  courtyard  was 
locked.  — Irving. 

14.  Whatever  is,  is  right.  — Pope. 

15.  The  old  stage-coach  is  at  the  door. 

16.  I  stood  on  the  bridge  at  midnight, 

As  the  clocks  were  striking  the  hour. 

EXERCISE  108 

Copy  from  the  sentences  in  this  lesson  (i)  all  verbs  that 
have  the  passive  form  ;  (2)  all  verbs  that  have  the  progressive 
form  ;   and  explain  the  formation  and  the  use  of  each. 

EXERCISE  109 

(i)  Write  five  sentences ,  each  containing  the  verb  he  used 
as  an  independent  verb. 

(2)  Write  five  sentences^  each  containing  a  verb  in  the 
passive  voice. 

(3)  Write  five  sentences^  each  containing  a  verb  in  the  pro- 
gressive form. 

v.— THE  VERB  Do 

Do  as  an  Auxiliary  Verb 

The  present  and  past  tenses  of  the  verb  do  are  used  as 
auxiliaries  with  the  simple  infinitive  — 

(i)   In  emphatic  assertions;  as, — 

I  do  wish  you  would  listen.     I  did  listen, 

(2)  In  interrogative  sentences;  as, — 

Do  you  hear  the  bell  ?     Did  you  see  the  sail  ? 

(3)  In  negative  sentences;  as, — 

I  do  not  hear  the  bell.     I  did  not  see  a  sail. 


138  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

I>o  as  an  Independent  Verb 

When  do  is  used  with  the  meaning  io  perform,  it  is  an 
independent  verb;  as,  Do  your  duty.  He  did  the  work 
quickly. 

EXERCISE    110 

Tell  whether  the  verb  do  is  used  as  an  independent  or  as 
an  auxiliary  verb  in  the  following  examples^  and  explain 
the  use  of  the  auxiliaries :  — 

1.  The  evil  that  men  do  Hves  after  them.  —  Shakespeare. 

2.  You  all  did  mark  how  he  did  shake.— Shakespeare. 

3.  She  gave  me  of  the  tree,  and  I  did  eat. 

4.  You  all  do  know  this  mantle.  —  Shakespeare. 

5.  I  do  not  like  your  faults. 

6.  Accuse  not  nature ;    she  hath  done  her  part : 
Do  thou  but  thine.  —  Milton. 

7.  Do  not  dissipate  your  energies  on  trifles. —Hamilton. 

8.  Most  of  the  facts  of  nature,  especially  in  the  life  of  birds 
and  animals,  are  well  screened.  We  do  not  see  the  play,  because 
we  do  not  look  intently  enough. —John  Burroughs. 

9.  Did  ye  not  hear  it?  — Byron. 

10.   A  merry  heart  doeth  good  like  a  medicine. 

CHAPTER    LV 

AUXILIARY    VERBS  —  Continuea 

The  following  verbs  are  used  with  the  simple  infinitive 
to  express  power,  permission,  possibility,  necessity,  etc. 
They  are  sometimes  called  auxiliaries  of  mode. 


AUXILIARY   VERBS  1^9 

I. —  Can 

present  tense  past  tense 

Singular                Plural  Singular      -           Plural 

I  can  We  can  I  could  We  could 

Thou  canst  You  can  Thou  couldst  You  could 

He  can  They  can  He  could  They  could 

Can  is  used  to  express   power    or  ability,  and  is  in  the 
indicative  mode ;  as,  — 

She  can  walk. 

He  {:{?u/d  speak  readily  in  three  or  four  languages. 

II.  —  May 
present  tense  past  tense 

Singular                 Plural  Singular                      Plural 

I  may  We  may  I  might  We  might 

Thou  mayest  You  may  Thou  mightest  You  might 

He  may  They  may  He  might  They  might 

Majy  expresses  permission  or  possibility ;  as,  — 

You  may  \_are  permitted  to]   enter  the  room. 

He  may  [it  is  possible  that  he  will]   change  his  mind. 

May  is   also   used  to    express    purpose,  or   to    express    a 

wish ;    as,  — 

Open  the  gate  that  they  may  enter. 

May  you  be  happy. 

Could  and  might  are  sometimes  used  as  the  simple  past 

of   can   and   may^  and    sometimes   in   a  conditional    sense ; 

as, — 

I  could  hear  the  music. 

The  lights  of  the  village  might  be  seen  from  the  bay. 

He  might  go  if  he  could  spare  the  time. 


T40  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

III.  — Must 
Must  has  no  change  of  form.     It  expresses  necessity ;  as  — ■ 
He  must  have  rest. 

IV.  —  Shotild  and  Would^ 

Should  is  no  longer  used  as  a  simple  past,  but   has  the 

sense  of  an  indefinite  present  or  of  a  contingent  condition ; 

as,  — 

Ambition  sJiould  be  made  of  sterner  stuff. 

If  I  should  begin  the  work,  I  could  not  finish  it. 

^The  phrases  made  up  of  the  verbs  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  or 
should,  with  an  infinitive,  are  classed  together  by  some  grammarians,  and  called 
the  potential  mode.  A  verb  in  the  so-called  potential  mode  is  conjugated  as 
folk'ws :  — 

PRESENT  TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

I  may  go  We  may  go 

Thou  mayst  go  You  may  go 

He  may  go  They  may  go 

PAST  TENSE 

I  might  go  We  might  go 

Thou  mightst  go  You  might  go 

He  might  go  They  might  go 

PRIGSENT   PERFECT  TENSE 

I  may  have  gone  We  may  have  gone 

Thou  mayst  have  gone  You  may  have  gone 

He  may  have  gone  They  may  have  gone  - 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE 

I  might  have  gone  We  might  have  gone 

Thou  mightst  have  gone  You  might  have  gone 

He  might  have  gone  They  might  have  gone 


AUXILIARY   VERBS  I4I 

Would  is  sometimes  a  simple  past,  sometimes  a  contingent 
present ;  as,  — 

He  would  not  speak  when  he  had  the  opportunity. 
He  would  not  speak  if  he  had  the  opportunity. 

V.  —  Ought 

Ought  is  the  old  past  tense  of  the  verb  owe^  and  expresses 
duty  or  obligation.  It  is  used  with  the  present  infinitive  to 
indicate  present  time,  and  with  the  perfect  infinitive  to  indi- 
cate past  time ;  as,  — 

Present.     He  ought  to  go. 

Past.         He  ought  to  have  gone. 

EXERCISE  111 

Tell  how  th6  verbs  may,  can,  must,  should,  and  would  are 

used  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 

We  can  make  our  lives  subUme.  —  Longfellow. 

2.  For  men  may  come  and  men  may  go, 

But  I  go  on  forever.  —  Tennyson. 

3.  He  that  fights  and  runs  away, 
May  live  to  fight  another  day. 

4.  It  may  be  the  gulfs  will  wash  us  down  ; 

It  may  be  we  shall  touch  the  Happy  Isles. 

5.  Wealth  may  seek  us,  but  wisdom  must  be  sought. 

6.  It  is  not  what  a  lawyer  tells  me  I  may  do,  but  what  humanity, 
reason,  and  justice  tell  me  I  ought  to  do.  —  burke. 


142  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

7.  They  had  been  friends  in  youth, 

But  whispering  tongues  can  poison  truth. 

8.  Too  late  !  too  late  !  ye  cannot  enter  now.  —  Tennyson. 

9.  How  he  could  trot !  how  he  could  run  !  and  then  such  leaps 
as  he  could  take  —  there  was  not  a  hedge  in  the  whole  country  that 
he  could  not  clear. —  Irving. 

10.  She  must  weep  or  she  will  die.  -Tennyson. 

1 1 .  He  saw  that  it  would  be  dark  long  before  he  could  reach  the 
village. —  Irving. 

12.  If  a  storm  should  come  and  awake  the  deep, 
What  matter !  I  shall  ride  and  sleep,  —  Procter. 

EXERCISE   112 
Write  sentences   illustrating   the   correct   use   of  the  verbs 
may,  can,  must,  mighty  could,  should,  and  ivould, 

CHAPTER    LVI 

CONJUGATION  OF   THE   VERB   Drive 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS 

Present  Past  Perfect  Participle 

Drive  drove  driven 

I.  — ACTIVE  VOICE 
INDICATIVE  MODE 
PRESENT   TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

I  drive  We  drive 

Thou  drivest  You  drive 

He  drives  They  drive 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  DRIVE  143 

PAST  TENSE 

I  drove  We  drove 

Thou  drovest  You  drove 

He  drove  They  drove 

FUTURE  TENSE 

I  shall  drive  We  shall  drive 

Thou  wilt  drive  You  will  drive 

He  will  drive  They  will  drive 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE 

I  have  driven  We  have  driven 

Thou  hast  driven  You  have  driven 

He  has  driven  They  have  driven 

PAST  PERFECT  TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

I  had  driven  We  had  driven 

Thou  hadst  driven  You  had  driven 

He  had  driven  They  had  driven 

FUTURE   PERFECT  TENSE 

I  shall  have  driven  We  shall  have  driven 

Thou  wilt  have  driven  You  will  have  driven 

He  will  have  driven  They  will  have  driven 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 
PRESENT  TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

(If)   I  drive  (If)  we  drive 

(If)   thou  drive  (If)  you  drive 

(If)  he  drive  (If)  they  drive 


144  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

PAST  TENSE 

(If)   I  drove  (If)  we  drove 

(If)  thou  drove  (If)  you  drove 

(If)  he  drove  (If)  they  drove 

IMPERATIVE  MODE 

PRESENT  TENSE 

Singular  Plural 

Drive   (thou)  Drive  (ye  or  you) 

INFINITIVES 

Present  (To)   drive  Driving 

Perfect  (To)   have  driven  Having  driven 

PARTICIPLES 
PRESENT  PERFECT  COMPOUND   PERFECT 

Driving  having  driven 

II.  — PASSIVE   FORMS 

The  passive  forms  of  a  transitive  verb  are  made  by  join- 
ing its  perfect  participle  to  the  different  forms  of  the  verb  be; 
thus,  — 

INDICATIVE  MODE 
PRESENT  TENSE  PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE 

I  am  driven  I  have  been  driven 

PAST  TENSE  PAST  PERFECT  TENSE 

I  was  driven  I  had  been  driven 

FUTURE  TENSE  FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE 

I  shall  be  driven  I  shall  have  been  driven 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  DRIVE 
SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 


145 


PRESENT  TENSE 

(If)   I  be  driven 


PAST  TENSE 

(If)   I  were  driven 


IMPERATIVE  MODE 
PRESENT   TENSE 

Be  (thou)   driven 


INFINITIVES 

Present  (To)   be  driven 
Perfect  (To)   have  been  driven 


Being  driven 
Having  been  driven 


PRESENT 

Being  driven 


PARTICIPLES 
PERFECT 

driven 


COMPOUND   PERFECT 

having  been  driven 


III  —  PROGRESSIVE   FORMS 

The  progressive  forms  of  a  verb  are  made  by  joining  its 
present   participle  to  the   different   forms   of   the   verb   be; 

thus,  — 

INDICATIVE  MODE 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE 

I  have  been  driving 


PRESENT  TENSE 

I  am  driving 


PAST  TENSE 

I  was  driving 

FUTURE  TENSE 

I  shall  be  driving 


PAST  PERFECT  TENSE 

I  had  been  driving 

FUTURE   PERFECT  TENSE 

I  shall  have  been  driving 


46 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 
SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 


PRESENT   TENSE 

(If)   I  be  driving 


PAST   TENSE 

(If)   I  were  driving 


IMPERATIVE  MODE 
PRESENT   TENSE 

Be   (thou  driving) 


INFINITIVES 


Present  (To)   be  driving 
Perfect  (To)  have  been  driving 


Having  been  driving 


PRESENT 


PARTICIPLES 
PERFECT 


EXERCISE   113 


COMPOUND  PERFECT 

having  been  driving 


Write  the  active  forms  of  the  verb  see  that  are  used  with 
the  subject  I  in  the  different  modes  and  tenses. 


EXERCISE   114 


Write  the  passive  forms  of  the  verb  see  that  are  used  with 
the  subject  thou  in  the  different  modes  and  tenses. 


EXERCISE   115 


Write   the  progressive  forms  of  the  verb  write  that   are 
used  with  the  subject  lie  in  the  different  modes  and  tenses. 


PARSING  VERBS,  INFINITIVES,  PARTICIPLES         147 
CHAPTER    LVII 

DIRECTIONS   FOR   PARSING  VERBS,    INFINITIVES,   AND 
PARTICIPLES 

I.   VERBS 

To  parse  a  verb,  tell  — 

1.  Its  conjugation — regular  or  irregular,  giving  its  princi- 
pal parts. 

2.  Its  class  —  transitive  or  intransitive. 

3.  Its  voice -^ active  or  passive  (if  transitive). 

4.  Its  mode  —  indicative,  subjunctive,  or  imperative. 

5.  Its  tense. 

6.  Its  person  and  number. 

7.  Its  subject. 

Example  i.  —  A  flat  stone  marks  the  spot  where  the  bard 
is  buried. 

Marks  is  a  regular  verb — mark,  marked,  marked.  It  is  transi- 
tive, active  voice,  indicative  mode,  present  tense,  third  person, 
singular  number,  agreeing  with  its  subject  stone. 

Is  buried  is  the  passive  form  of  the  regular  verb  bury^  —  bury, 
buried,  buried.  It  is  transitive,  passive  voice,  indicative  mode, 
present  tense,  third  person,  singular  number,  agreeing  with  its  sub- 
ject bard. 

Example  2. — The  dew  was  falling  fast. 

Was  falling  is  the  progressive  form  of  the  irregular  verb  fall — 
fall,  fell,  fallen.  It  is  intransitive,  indicative  mode,  past  tense,  third 
person,  singular  number,  agreeing  with  its  subject  dew 


148  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

Example  3.  —  I  may  do  that  I  shall  be  sorry  for. 

Shall  bCy  made  up  of  the  auxihary  shall  and  the  simple  infini- 
tive of  the  verb  be,  is  the  future  tense  of  the  verb  be.  It  is  ir- 
regular,—  be,  was,  been,  —  intransitive,  indicative  mode,  used  with 
the  subject  /. 

Example  4.  —  Be  silent,  that  you  may  hear. 

Be  is  an  irregular  verb  —  be,  was,  been  —  intransitive,  imperative 
mode,  present  tense,  used  with  the  subject  you  understood. 

EXERCISE  116 

Parse  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  Have  patience  with  me,  and  I  will  pay  thee  all. 

2.  Now  stir  the  fire,  and  close  the  shutters  fast.  —  Cowper. 

3.  The  ship  is  sinking  beneath  the  tide.  —  Southey. 

4.  I  have  been  young,  and  now  am  old,  yet  have  I  not  seen 
the  righteous  forsaken.  —  Bible. 

5.  There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men, 

Which,  taken  at  the  flood,  leads  on  to  fortune; 

Omitted,  all  the  voyage  of  their  Hfe 

Is  bound  in  shallows  and  in  miseries.  —  Shakespeare. 

6.  The  broad  sun  above  laughed  a  pitiless  laugh. 

7.  The  Americans  were  sheltered  by  an  intervening  wood. 

8.  Some  murmur  when  their  sky  is  clear 

And  wholly  bright  to  view. 
If  one  small  speck  of  dark  appear 

In  their  great  heaven  of  blue. —Trench. 

9.  I  dreamed  to-night  that  I  did  feast  with  Caesar. 

10.  We  had  had  no  water  since  our  daylight  breakfast ;  oui 
lunch  on  the  mountain  had  been  moistened  only  by  the  fog. 

— C.  D.  Warner. 


PARSING   VERBS,  INFINITIVES,  PARTICIPLES         149 

Auxiliaries  of  Mode 

In  phrases  made  up  of  can  {could) y  may  {might) ^  mtist, 
should^  or  would^  with  the  simple  infinitive,  parse  the  aux- 
iliary verb  and  the  infinitive  separately.^ 

Example  i.  —  How  he  could  run! 

Could  is  a  defective  verb,  transitive,  indicative  mode,  past  tense, 
used  with  the  subject  he.  Run  is  the  present  infinitive  of  the  verb 
run.     It  is  intransitive,  object  of  the  verb  could. 

Example  2.  —  If  you  were  here,  I  could  assist  you. 

Could  is  a  defective  verb,  transitive,  subjunctive  mode,  past 
tense,  used  with  the  subject  /.  Assist  is  the  present  infinitive  of 
the  verb  assist .  It  is  transitive,  active  voice,  object  of  the  verb 
could. 

Example  3.  —  He  should  have  gone. 

Should  is  a  defective  verb,  transitive,  indicative  mode,  past 
tense,  used  with  the  subject  he.  Have  gone  is  the  perfect  infini- 
tive of  the  verb  go.     It  is  intransitive,  object  of  the  verb  should. 

EXERCISE  117 

Parse  the  italicized  verbs  in  the  following  sentences: — 

• 

1.  Have  patience,  gentle  friends,  I  must  not  read  it. 

2.  One  may  acquire  the  habit  of  looking  upon  the  sunny  side 
of  things,  and  he  may  also  acquire  the  habit  of  looking  upon  the 
gloomy  side. 

1  These  compound  lorms  are  sometimes  parsed  as  verb-phrases  in  the  in' 
dicative  or  subjunctive  mode,  according  to  their  use  in  the  sentence. 


ISO  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

3.  Should  he  go,  he  could  not  hear  the  lecture. 

4.  We  should  be  as  careful  of  our  words  as  of  our  actions. 

5.  He  could  speak  readily  in  three  or  four  languages. 

6.  Give  me  this  water  that  I  may  not  thirst. 

7.  If  you  would  achieve  a  high  success,  you  must  think  for 
yourself 

8.  If  I  were  you,  I  should  atteinpt  the  work. 

9.  The  guards  told  us  that  we  could  proceed  no  farther. 

II.  INFINITIVES 
To  parse  an  infinitive,  tell  — 

1.  From  what  verb  it  is  derived. 

2.  Its  form  —  present  or  perfect,  active  or  passive. 

3.  Its  syntax  —  use  in  the  sentence. 

Example  i.^ — The  greatest  curiosity  of  the  study  remains 
to  be  mentioned. 

To  be  mentioned  is  a  simple  infinitive  from  the  transitive  verb 
mention.  It  is  present,  passive,  and  depends  upon  the  verb 
remains. 

Example  2.  —  Form  the  habit  of  listening  attentively. 

Listening  is  an  infinitive  from  the  verb  listen.  It  is  present 
active,  and  is  used  as  the  object  of  the  preposition  of. 

EXERCISE  118 
Parse  the  infinitives  in  the  following  sentettces :  — 

1.  To  reheve  the  wretched  was  his  pride. 

2.  Remember  that  when  the  inheritance  devolves  upon  you, 
you  are  not  only  to  enjoy,  but  to  improve. 


PARSING   VERBS,  INFINITIVES,  PARTICIPLES         151 

3.  He  had  the  happy  knack  of  starting  interesting  subjects  and 
saying  all  sorts  of  interesting  things  by  the  way. 

4.  Do  with  all  your  might  whatever  you  have  to  do,  without 
thinking  of  the  future. 

5.  To  see  is  to  beheve. 

6.  Seeing  is  believing. 

7.  In  keeping  Thy  commandments  there  is  great  reward. 

8.  But  talking  is  not  always  to  converse. 

III.   PARTICIPLES 
To  parse  a  participle,  tell  — 

1.  From  what  verb  it  is  derived. 

2.  Its  form  —  present  or  perfect,  active  or  passive. 

3.  Its  syntax — use  in  the  sejitence. 

Example   i.  —  Looking  upward,  he  saw  the  moon. 

Looking  is  a  present  participle,  active,  from  the  verb  look.  It 
modifies  the  pronoun  he. 

Example  2.  —  The  ships,  anchored  in  the  harbor,  were 
loaded  with  tea. 

Anchored  is  a  perfect  participle,  passive,  from  the  verb  anchor. 
It  modifies  the  noun  ships. 

EXERCISE  119 

Parse  the  verbs,  the  infinitives,  and  the  participles  in  the 
folloiving  sentejtces :  — 

I.  I  rose  softly,  opened  the  door  suddenly,  and  beheld  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  little  fairy  groups  that  a  painter  could 
imagine.  — Irving. 


152  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

2.  Let  us  enter  and  pass  up  the  staircase.  —  Hawthorne. 

3.  In  this  way  they  expected  to  ruin  all  the  merchants,  and 
starve  the  poor  people,  by  depriving  them  of  employ- 
ment. —Hawthorne. 

4.  Let  me  move  slowly  through  the  street.  —  Bryant. 

5.  The  country  was  to  be  defended,  and  to  be  saved,  before 
it  could  be  enjoyed.— Webster. 

6.  We  cannot  look,  however  imperfectly,  upon  a  great  man 
without  gaining  something  by  him.  — Carlyle. 

7.  In  an  attitude  imploring, 

Hands  upon  his  bosom  crossed. 
Wondering,  worshipping,  adoring. 

Knelt  the  Monk  in  rapture  lost. —  Longfellow. 

8.  The  rattle  of  drums,  beaten  out  of  all  manner  of  time,  was 
heard  above  every  other  sound.  — Hawthorne. 

9.  Whatever  may  be  our  fate,  be  assured  that  this  declaration 
will  stand.  It  may  cost  treasure,  and  it  may  cost  blood ;  but  it 
will  stand,  and  it  will  richly  compensate  for  both. 

10.  You  may  break,  you  may  shatter  the  vase,  if  you  will, 
But  the  scent  of  the  roses  will  hang  round  it  still. 

11.  For  men  must  work,  and  women  must  weep. 
Though  storms  be  sudden,  and  waters  deep, 

12.  The  burden  laid  upon  me 
Seemed  greater  than  I  could  bear. 

13.  Modem  majesty  consists  in  work.  What  a  man  can  do  is 
his  greatest  ornament,  and  he  always  consults  his  dignity  by 
doing  it— Carlyle. 


CORRECT  USE   OF   VERBS  153 

14.  The  pine,  placed  nearly  always  among  scenes  disordered 
and  desolate,  brings  into  them  all  possible  elements  of  order  and 
precision.  Lowland  trees  may  lean  to  this  side  and  that,  though 
it  is  but  a  meadow  breeze  that  bends  them,  or  a  bank  of  cow- 
slips from  which  their  trunks  lean  aslope.  But  let  storm  and 
avalanche  do  their  worst,  and  let  the  pine  find  only  a  ledge  of 
vertical  precipice  to  cUng  to,  it  will  nevertheless  grow 
straight.  —  Ruskin. 


CHAPTER    LVIII 

CORRECT    USE   OF  VERBS 


I.  Lay,  Lie 

'RESENT 

Past 

Pres.  Participle 

Perf.  Participle 

Lay 

laid 

laying 

laid 

Lie 

lay 

lying 

lain 

Lay  is  a  transitive  verb.  It  means  to  place  or  put  some- 
thing in  position.  Lie  is  an  intransitive  verb,  meaning  to 
rest. 

EXERCISE  120 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  filling  the  blanks  with  the 
proper  form  of  lay  or  lie  :  — 

1.   the  music  on  the  piano. 

2.  The  rain  has the  dust. 

3.  He down  to  rest. 

4.  He  has there  an  hour. 

5.  She the  letter  on  the  desk. 


154  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

6.  The  dog  is by  the  fire. 

7.  The  workmen  are a  new  walk. 

8.   the  roots  with  care. 

9.  The  gentle  race  of  flowers 
Are in  their  lowly  beds,  with  the  fair  and  good  of  ours. 

10.    In  the  cold  moist  earth  we her,  when  the  forests  cast 

the  leaf. 

II.   Sit,  Set 

Present  Past  Pres.  Participle  Perf.  Participle 

Sit  sat  sitting  sat 

Set  set  setting  set 

Sit  is  an  intransitive  verb.  It  means  to  take  a  seat;  to 
remain  in  a  seated  or  settled  position ;  to  perch  or  brood, 
as  a  bird. 

Set  is  transitive  when  it  means  to  place  something  in 
position ;  to  fix  or  establish ;  it  is  intransitive  when  it 
means  to  sink  or  settle  downward. 

EXERCISE  121 

Re-write  the  following  sentences y  using  the  proper  verb  or 
form  from  each  parenthesis.  Give  a  reason  for  youf 
choice  :  — 

1.  I  (set,  sat)  in  this  seat  last  night. 

2.  The  hen  is  (sitting,  setting)  on  twelve  eggs. 

3.  He  had  (sat,  set)  under  that  tree  for  an  hour. 

4.  The  gardener  is  (sitting,  setting)  out  strawberry  plants. 

5.  Will  you  Tset,  sit)  by  me? 


CORRECT  USE  OF   VERBS  155 

6.  (Sit,  set)  the  cup  on  the  shelf. 

7.  The  surgeon  (set,  sat)   the  boy's  arm. 

8.  The  sun  is  (setting,  sitting)  already. 

9.  Five  little  birds  were  (sitting,  setting)  in  a  row. 

10.  Who  (sat,  set)  the  table? 

11.  He  (sat,  set)  in  the  front  seat. 

12.  They  were  (setting,  sitting)  by  the  pond,  watching  the 
goldfish. 

III.    Mapf  Can 

May  IS  used  to  indicate  permission  qt  possibility ;  can,  to 
denote  power  or  ability. 

EXERCISE  122 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  filling  the  blanks  with  the 
proper  form  of  inay  or  can  :  — 

1.  Mabel not  sing. 

2.  He speak  French  fluently. 

3.  We not  hear  the  speaker. 

4.  Who understand  his  errors? 

5.  You look  at  my  drawings. 

6.  The  boy  said  that  he sail  a  boat. 

7.    you  hear  the  watch  tick? 

8.  ■ you  tell  the  names  of  our  most  common  birds? 

9.    I  go  home  ? 

TO.   I  told  him  that  he go. 

IV.    Think,  Guess ^  Eocpect 

To  think  is  to  judge,  to  exercise  the  mind.  To  guess  is 
to  form  an  opinion  at  random.  To  expect  is  to  look  for- 
ward to ;  this  verb  always  refers  to  the  future. 


156  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  123 

Copy  the  following  sentences^  filling  the  blanks  with  some 
form  of  think,  guess,  or  eocpect:  — 

1.  I  will about  the  matter. 

2.  No  one  was  able  to the  riddle. 

3.  Do  you to  meet  your  friend. 

4.  I he  did  not  go. 

5.  I your  plan  is  a  wise  one. 

6.  Do  you the  attendance  will  be  large? 

7.   what  I  have  in  this  box. 

8.  England every  man  to  do  his  duty. 

V.   Stop,  Stay 

Stop^  to  cease  from  motion ;  to  come  to  an  end.  Stay, 
to  remain ;  to  tarry. 

EXERCISE  124 

Copy  the  following  senteiues,  fiHi'^^g  the  blanks  with  the 
proper  form  of  stop  or  stay.  Give  in  each  case  a  reason 
for  your  choice :  — 

1.  Did  you- at  Chicago  on  your  way  home? 

2.  Where  did  you while  you  were  in  the  city? 

3.  The  driver  is the  car. 

4.  Mr.  Hunt  is at  the  Mountain  House. 

5.  Does  this  boat at  the  first  landing? 

6.  Our  friends  are at  the  seashore, 

7.  The  plumber  could  not the  leak. 

8.  You  promised  to at  home  this  evening. 

9.  We  shall here  overnight. 

ID.    Let  us here,  and  wait  for  a  car. 


REVIEW   OF   VERBS  157 

VI.   Learn,  Teach 

LearUj    to    acquire    knowledge;     to    receive    instruction. 
Teacky  to  give  instruction  to. 

EXERCISE   125 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  filling  the  blanks  with  the 
proper  form  of  learn  or  teach:  — 

1.  He the  child  to  sing. 

2.  Clara her  lesson  quickly. 

3.  The  pupils  are a  new  song. 

4.  Where  did  this  boy to  speak  French? 

5.  Who you  to  skate? 

6.  We  are to  sketch  from  nature. 

7.  Take  my  yoke  upon,  you,  and of  me. 

8.  There,  in  his  noisy  mansion  skilled  to  rule, 
The  village  master his  little  school. 

9.  The  teacher us  a  new  song. 

10.   The  master John,  and  John his  lesson  quickly. 


CHAPTER    LIX 

REVIEW   OF   VERBS 
EXERCISE   126 

Define  a  verb.  What  is  a  transitive  verb .?  What  is  an 
intransitive  verb  t  Mention  a  word  that  may  be  a  transitive 
verb  in  one  sentence,  and  an  intransitive  verb  in  another. 


158  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

What  inflections  have  verbs  ?  What  is  meant  by  voice  ? 
How  many  voices  are  there  ?  What  does  each  denote  ? 
How  is  the  passive  voice  formed  ? 

What  is  meant  by  mode  ?  How  many  modes  are  there  ? 
Define,  and  give  examples  of  each. 

What  is  tense  ?  Name  the  three  leading  tenses.  Which 
tenses  are  indicated  by  inflection,  and  which  by  the  aid  of 
other  verbs  1 

What  person-forms  has  the  verb .?     What  number-forms } 

How  do  the  infinitive  and  the  participle  differ  from  the 
verb  f  How  do  they  differ  from  each  other }  Which  part 
of  speech  is  the  infinitive  most  like  ?  The  participle  ? 
Mention  four  different  verbal  forms  ending  in  -ing,  and 
state  the  characteristics  of  each. 

What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  ?  What  is  a 
regular  verb }  An  irregular  verb }  Name  a  verb  that  has 
both  regular  and  irregular  forms.  Name  a  verb  that  has 
the  same  form  for  the  present  tense,  the  past  tense,  and 
the  perfect  participle. 

What  is  meant  by  conjugating  a  verb  ? 

When  is  a  verb  said  to  be  used  as  an  auxiliary.^  Men- 
tion three  verbs  that  may  be  used  as  either  independent 
or  auxiHary  verbs,  and  give  examples  of  each  use.  What 
auxiliary  is  used  in  forming  the  passive  voice }  Which 
of  the  auxiliaries  are  tense  auxiliaries }  How  are  they 
used  ? 


CLASSES   OF   ADVERBS  159 

CHAPTER    LX 

CLASSES    OF   ADVERBS 

I.   CLASSIFICATION   ACCORDING  TO   MEANING 

Point  out  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
what  each  expresses  :  — 

1.  Now  came  still  evening  on. 

2.  Ah  !  then  and  there  was  hurrying  to  and  fro. 

3.  Days  brightly  came  and  calmly  went. 

4.  It  is  a  very  difficult  task. 

(i)  Adverbs  that  show  when  or  how  often  are  adverbs  of 
time;  as,  now,  tJien,  to-day,  yesterday,  early,  presently,  soon, 
always,  often,  ottce,  twice,  daily,  again. 

(2)  Adverbs   that   show  where   are   adverbs   of  place;  as, 

here,  there,  hither,  thither,  hence,  thence,  somewhere,  yonder, 
above,  below,  np,  down,  away,  off,  far. 

The  word  thei^e  is  not  always  an  adverb  of  place.  Some* 
times  it  is  used  merely  to  introduce  a  sentence,  in  order 
that  the  verb  may  be  placed  before  its  subject.  When  it 
is  used  to  introduce  a  sentence  in  this  manner,  it  is  called 
an  expletive ;  as,  — 

There  [expletive]  was  a  sound  of  revelry  by  night. 
There  [adverb  of  place]  groups  of  merry  children  played. 

(3)  Adverbs   that   show   how  are   adverbs  of  manner;    as, 

well,  ill,  badly,  slowly,  quickly,  clearly,  together,  so,  thus. 

(4)  Adverbs  that  show  how  much  are  adverbs  of  degree; 
as,  very,  much,  little,  only,  almost,  enough,  quite,  too,  so,  as. 


l6o  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

(5)  Adverbs  that  express  certainty  or  uncertainty  are  modai 
adverbs ;  as,  indeed^  verily^  possibly^  perhaps. 

The  words  yes  and  no  are  sometimes  called  adverbs,  but 
they  are  really  equivalent  to  sentences ;  as.  Will  you  go  ? 
Yes  (=1  will  go). 

Combinations  of  words  used  as  single  adverbs  may  be 
called  adverbial  phrases;  as,  again  and  again,  at  last,  at 
le7igtJi,  by  and  by,  by  far,  ifi  and  out,  in  vain,  now  and 
then,  out  and  out,  through  and  through,  up  and  down. 

EXERCISE   127 

Point  out  the  adverbs  and  the  adverbial  phrases  in  the 
followifig  sentences,  tell  to  which  class  each  belongs,  and 
what  it  modifies :  — 

1.  A  thousand  hearts  beat  happily.  —  Byron. 

2.  Down  sunk  the  bell  with  a  gurghng  sound.  —  Southey. 

3.  Then  did  the  httle  maid  reply, 

"Seven  boys  and  girls  are  we."  — Wordsworth. 

4.  Defect  in  manners  is  usually  the  defect  of  fine  perceptions. 

—  Emerson. 

5.  On  right,  on  left,  above,  below, 

Sprung  up  at  once  the  lurking  foe. —  Scott. 

6.  Swiftly,  swiftly  flew  the  ship. 

Yet  she  sailed  softly  too.  —  Coleridge. 

7.  The  world  is  too  much  with  us.  —  Wordsworth. 

8.  How  often,  oh,  how  often 

I  had  wished  that  the  ebbing  tide 
Would  bear  me  away  on  its  bosom 

O'er  the  ocean  wild  and  wide.  —  Longfellow. 


CLASSES  OF  ADVERBS  l6l 

II.  CLASSIFICATION  ACCORDING  TO  USE 

Tell  how  each  adverb  is  used  in  the  following  sen- 
tences :  — 

1.  The  guests  withdrew  silently. 

2.  The  tree  hes  where  it  fell. 

3.  Where  can  rest  be  found? 

(i)  An  adverb  that  simply  modifies  another  word  is  a 
simple  adverb ;  as,  He  walked  rapidly.    . 

(2)  An  adverb  that  not  only  modifies  a  word,  but  also 
connects  the  clause  of  which  it  is  a  part  with  the  remainder  of 
the  sentence,  is  a  conjunctive  adverb;  as.  He  came  wJien  he 
was  called. 

The  most  common  words  of  this  class  are  when^  where, 
whencey  whither,  hozv,  and  why.  These  are  also  called 
adverbial  conjunctions. 

(3)  An  adverb  that  is  used  to  ask  a  question  is  an  inter- 
rogative adverb ;  as,   Where  did  he  stand.? 

EXERCISE  128 

Find  the  conjunctive  and  the  interrogative  adverbs  in  the 
following  sentences,  and  tell  how  each  is  used:  — 

1.  Why  are  we  here? 

2.  Some  murmur  when  their  sky  is  clear. 

3.  You  take  my  house  when  you  do  take  the  prop 
That  doth  sustain  my  house  \   you  take  my  life 
When  you  do  take  the  means  whereby  I  live. 

—  Shakespeare. 


l62 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


4.  When  I  look  upon   the    tombs  of  the   great,  every   emotion 
of  envy  dies  in  me. 

5.  Where   are    the    flowers,  the    fair   young    flowers,    that    lately 

sprang  and  stood 
In  brighter  hght,  and  softer  airs,  a  beauteous  sisterhood? 


—  Bryant. 


CHAPTER   LXI 


COMPARISON    OF    ADVERBS 


Some  adverbs,  like  adjectives,  admit  of  comparison. 
A  few  are  compared  by  inflection ;  as,  soon,  sootier,  soonest. 
Most  adverbs  form  the  comparative  and  superlative 
degrees  by  the  use  of  more  and  most ;  as,  wisely,  more 
wisely,  most  wisely. 

The  following  adverbs  are  compared  irregularly :  — 


Positive 

Comparative 

Superlative 

badly, 

ill 

worse 

worst 

far 

farther, 

further 

farthest,  furthest 

late 

later 

latest,  last 

little 

less 

least 

much 

more 

most 

nigh,  : 

near 

nearer 

nearest,  next 

well 

better 

best 

EXERCISE  129 

Write  the  comparison  of  the  following  adverbs :  — 
last  often  swiftly  next  ill 


nigh 


more 


well 


fast 


distinctly 


HOW   TO   PARSE  ADVERBS  163 

CHAPTER   LXII 

HOW   TO    PARSE    ADVERBS 

To  parse  an  adverb,  tell  — 

1.  The  kind  of  adverb. 

2.  Its  degree,  if  comparative  or  superlative. 

3.  Its  construction  —  what  it  modifies. 

Example  i.  —  He  then  touched  briefly  upon  the  promi- 
nent events  of  the  Revolution. 

Then  is  an  adverb  of  time,  modifying  the  verb  touched. 
Bf'iefly  is  an  adverb  of  manner,  modifying  the  verb  touched. 

Example  2.  —  I  remember,  I  remember 

The  house  where  I  v^as  born. 

Where  is  a  conjunctive  adverb,  showing  place.  It  modifies  the 
verb  was  born,  and  connects  the  clause  "where  I  w^s  born"  with 
the  word  house. 

Example  3. —  When  did  he  go? 

When  is  an  interrogative  adverb  of  time,  modifying  the  verb 
did  go, 

EXERCISE   130 

Parse  the  adverbs  ajid  the  adjectives  in  the  following 
sentences :  — 

1.  He  lives  long  that  lives  well. 

2.  Still  waters  run  deep. 

3.  Welcome  her,  all  things  youthful  and  sweet ! 


l64  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

4.  Then  they  praised  him  soft  and  low. 

5.  He  drank  of  the  water  so  cool  and  clear.  —  Southey. 

6.  How  fast  the  flitting  figures  come  !  —  Bryant. 

7.  Down  swept  the  chill  wind  from  the  mountain  peak. 

8.  The  door  in  the  mountain-side  shut  fast. 

9.  A  wondrous  portal  opened  wide.  —  browning. 

10.  The  tumult  grew  louder. 

11.  Louder  still  the  minstrels  blew. 

12.  Colder  and  louder  blew  the  wind, 

A  gale  from  the  Northeast.  —  Longfellow. 

13.  There  in  the  twilight  cold  and  gray, 
Lifeless,  but  beautiful,  he  lay.  —  Longfellow. 

14.  And  there  lay  the  steed  with  his  nostril  all  wide. 

But  through  it  there  rolled  not  the  breath  of  his  pride. 

15.  There  is  nothing  hke  a  primeval  wood  for  color  on  a  sunny 
day.  —  C.  D.  Warner. 

16.  Why  stand  ye  here  all  the  day  idle?  — Bible. 

17.  Oh!  what  a  tangled  web  we  weave. 
When  first  we  practice  to  deceive.  —  Scott. 

18.  O  SoUtude  !    where  are  the  charms 

That  sages  have  seen  in  thy  face  ?  —  Cowper. 

19.  O,  why  should  the  spirit  of  mortal  be  proud  ?  —  Knox. 

20.  The  rain  is  falling  where  they  lie. —Bryant. 


ADVERBS   DISTINGUISHED   FROM   ADJECTIVES      16$ 
CHAPTER   LXIII 

ADVERBS   DISTINGUISHED   FROM   ADJECTIVES 

Tell  whether  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences are  adjectives  or  adverbs,  giving  a  reason  in  each 

case : — 

1.  She  looks  cold. 

2.  She  looked  coldly  on  the  project. 

3.  The  apple  feels  hard. 

4.  He  works  hard. 

Be  careful  to  discriminate  between  an  adjective  used  to 
complete  the  predicate  and  an  adverb  used  to  modify  the 
verb.  An  adjective  is  used  when  the  quality  or  condition 
of  the  subject  is  given,  and  an  adverb,  when  the  manner 
of  the  action  is  described ;  as,  — 

The  child  seems  happy  (adjective). 
He  lived  happily  (adverb). 

Do  not  use  an  adjective  where  an  adverb  is   required ; 

as, — 

I  am  7)ery  tired   (not  real  tired). 

He  is  somewhat  better  (not  some  better). 

She  answered  promptly  (not  prompt^. 

In  poetry  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  for  an  adverb; 

as, — 

Silent  rows  the  gondolier. 

Some  adverbs  are  identical  in  form  with  adjectives;  as, 
muchy  little,  far,  ill,  hard,  loud,  soft,  fast. 


1 66  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  131 

Copy  the  following  sentences^  inserting  the  proper  word 
from  each  parenthesis.  Give  in  each  case  a  reaso?i  for  your 
choice :  — 

1.  She  looked   (beautiful,  beautifully). 

2.  How   (charming,  charmingly)   she  sang. 

3.  The  sentinel  stood   (firm,  firmly)   at  his  post. 

4.  Set  the  tree   (firm,  firmly). 

5.  The  judge  looked  (sharp,  sharply)  at  the  prisoner. 

6.  We  climbed  the  hill   (easy,  easily). 

7.  This  is  an   (uncommon,  uncommonly)   large  tree. 

8.  The  patient  is    (some,  somewhat)   better. 

9.  It  was  a.  (remarkable,  remarkably)   clear  night. 

10.  He  was  an   (unusual,  unusually)   interesting  speaker. 

11.  I  am   (real,  very)   sorry  that  you  cannot  join  our  party. 

12.  This  milk  tastes   (sour,  sourly). 

13.  The  boy  reads   (clear,  clearly)   and   (distinct,  distinctly). 

14.  He  is   (some,  somewhat)   hoarse. 

15.  The  bell  sounded   (clear,  clearly). 

16.  The  notes  of  the  grackle  sound  (harsh,  harshly). 

17.  How   (quiet,  quietly)   th'e  snow  falls! 

18.  The  speaker  did  not  quote  that  passage  (accurate, 
accurately) . 

EXERCISE  132 

REVIEW   OF  ADVERBS 

What  is  an  adverb  ?  How  are  adverbs  classified  with 
respect  to  meaning?  Give  an  example  of  each  class. 
How  are  they  classified  with  respect  to  use  ?  State  the 
two  offices  of   a  conjunctive  adverb.     Give   an   example    of 


CLASSES   OF   PHRASES  167 

an  interrogative  adverb.  Mention  five  adverbs  that  admit 
of  comparison,  and  give  the  comparison  of  each.  In  what 
way  are  adjectives  and  adverbs  alike.?  How  do  they 
differ.? 

CHAPTER   LXIV 

CLASSES    OF    PHRASES 
I.   CLASSIFICATION   ACCORDING  TO   FORM 

Read  the  phrases  ^   in    the   following   examples,  and   tell 
by  what  each    phrase  is  introduced :  — 

1.  The  tree  on  the  corner  is  an  elm. 

2.  They  walked  toward  the  river. 

3.  He  expects  to  return  soon. 

4.  We  found  the  boy  sailing  a  boat. 

( 1 )  A  phrase  introduced  by  a  preposition  is  a  prepositional 
phrase;  as,  — 

1.  The  leaves  of  this  phint  are  glossy. 

2.  We  heard  the  sound  of  distaiit  footsteps. 

3.  The  troops  were  marching  through  a  valley. 

4.  He  reads  for  information. 

(2)  A   phrase   introduced   by  an  infinitive  is  an  infiniiive 
phrase  ;  as,  — 

1.  To  do  good  should  be  the  aim  of  all. 

2.  He  hoped  to  win  the  prize. 

3.  Crowds  came  to  behold  the  sight. 

1  See  page  27. 


l68  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

(3)  A  phrase  introduced  by  a  participle  is  a  participial 
phrase;  as, — 

1.  Looking  upward,  they  beheld  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

2.  He  advanced,  followed  by  the  Jive  faithful  workmen. 

3.  Having  finished  the  work,  he  demanded  his  pay. 

EXERCISE  133 

In  the  following  sentences  point  out  the  prepositional ,  the 
infinitive,  and  the  participial  phrases ,  and  tell  by  what  each 
phrase  is  introduced :  —^ 

1.  Strive  to  be  usefully  employed. 

2.  Having  obtained  the  information,  he  ceased  questioning. 

3.  They  saw  a  small  vessel  approaching  the  shore. 

4.  At  last,  turning  briskly  away,  she  came  toward  the  table. 

5.  We  are  anxious  to  learn  the  result. 

6.  He  was  unable  to  convince  this  man  of  his  error. 

7.  Not  one  of  these  men  offered  to  lend  his  assistance. 

8.  Down  plunged  the  diver,  ana  soon  rose  dripping   from   the 
water,  holding  the  sea-shrub  in  his  hand. 

9.  To  love  one's  country  has  ever  been  esteemed  honorable. 

10.  And  out  again  1  curve  and  flow 

To  join  the  brimming  river. 

EXERCISE   134 

Write  sentences  containing  (i)  a  prepositional  phrase  used 
like  an  adjective ;  (2)  a  prepositional  phrase  used  like  an 
adverb ;    (3)    a  participial  phrase   used   like   an    adjective ; 


CLASSES  OF  PHRASES  169 

(4)  an    infinitive  phrase   used  as    the    subject    of  a    verb ; 

(5)  an  infinitive  phrase  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb. 

II.  CLASSIFICATION  ACCORDING  TO  USE 

State     the     office     of     each     phrase     in     the     following 
examples :  — 

1.  The  decision  of  the  judge  was  just. 

2.  The  house  stands  on  a  high  hill, 

3.  To  defer  action  will  be  unwise. 

4.  He  refused  to  open  the  gate. 

(i)  A  phrase  that  performs  the  office  of  an  adjective  is  an 
adjeciive  phrase;  as, — 

1 .  The  doors  of  the  church  were  open. 

2.  He  beheld  a  stranger  standing  near  him, 

3.  Listen  to  the  song  of  the  bird. 

(2)  A  phrase  that  performs  the  office  of  an  adverb  is  an 
adverbial  phrase  ;  as,  — 

1.  They  landed  on  an  island. 

2.  He  came  to  inspect  the  work. 

3.  The  house  stood  on  this  corner. 

(2)  A  phrase  that  performs  the  office  of  a  noun  is  a  noun 
phrase;  as, — 

1.  To  please  all  is  impossible. 

2,  We  hope  to  hear  the  speaker. 


I70  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  135 


Find  the  adjective^   the   adverbial,    and  the  noun  phrases 
in  the  following  examples,  and  tell  how  each  is  used :  — 

1.  In  happy  homes  he  saw  the  Hght 

Of  household  fires  gleam  warm  and  bright. 

2.  Rehgion  dwells  not  in  the  tongue,  but  in  the  heart. 

3.  Hark  !   I  hear  the  bugles  of  the  enemy. 

4.  A  lamp  was  burning  in  the  Httle  chapel. 

5.  Rise  with  the  lark. 

6.  It  was  one  by  the  village  clock. 

7.  The  newly  elected  member  went  in  state  to  the  City  Cross, 
accompanied  by  a  band  of  music. 

8.  The  doors  of  the  prison  closed  upon  him. 

9.  Around  the  walls  stood  several  oak  bookcases. 

10.  The  edges  and  corners  of  the  box  were  carved  with  most 
wonderful  skill. 

11.  You  must  change  your  style  of  living. 

12.  Point  thy  tongue  on  the  anvil  of  truth. 

13.  It  stands  on  a  mound  which  elevates  it^above  the  other 
parts  of  the  castle,  and  a  great  flight  of  steps  leads  to  the  interior. 

14.  The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 

15.  Cease  to  do  evil;  learn  to  do  well. 

16.  Here  delicate  snow-stars,  out  of  the  cloud, 

Come  floating  downward  in  airy  play. 

EXERCISE  136 

Write  (i)  Jive  sentences,  each  contaiiting  an  adjective 
phrase;  (2)  five  sentences ^  each  containing  an  adverbial 
phrase ;   (3)  two  sentences,  each  containing  a  noun  phrase. 


PREPOSITIONS  171 

CHAPTER   LXV 

PREPOSITIONS 

Tell  what  the  following  prepositions  connect,  and  what 
relations  they  express  :  — 

1.  He  stood  on  the  bridge. 

2.  'Twas  the  night  before  Christmas, 

3.  The  tree  was  struck  by  lightning. 

4.  He  died  for  his  country. 

5.  The  eyes  of  the  sleepers  waxed  deadly  and  chill. 

Prepositions  express  such  a  variety  of  relations  that  they 
cannot  be  easily  classified  according  to  meaning.  The  most 
common  relations  expressed  by  prepositions  are  — 

( 1 )  Place  or  direction  ;  as,  ^  /  home  ;  tozvards  the  bridge ; 
heloiv  the  falls. 

(2)  Time ;  as.  After  breakfast ;  till  noon  ;  since  morning. 

(3)  Agency,  instrumentality,  or  means;  as,  Killed  by  frost; 
cut  zvith  a  hatchet ;  lost  tJiroicgh  carelessness. 

(4)  Cause  or  purpose ;  as,  Thankful  for  good  health ;  he 
votes  from  principle. 

(5)  Possession;  as.  The  voice  f?/"  the  speaker;  the  beauty 
of  the  rose ;  the  blade  of  the  knife. 

(6)  Definition ;  as.  The  virtue  of  temperance ;  the  city  of 
Rome. 

(7)  Object;   as,   The  fear  of  death;  the  hope  of  reward. 

Many  other  relations  are  implied,  such  as  reference^  ex- 
pressed by  about ;  association,  by  zvitk  ;  separation,  hy  front  ; 
opposition,  by  against ;  substitution,  by  for ;  etc. 


1/2 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


The  words  most  commonly  used  as  prepositions  are  the 
following :  — 


about 

athwart 

from 

to 

above 

before 

in 

toward 

across 

behind 

into 

towards 

after 

below 

of 

under 

against 

beneath 

off 

underneath 

along 

beside 

on 

until 

amid 

besides 

over 

unto 

amidst 

between 

round 

up 

among 

beyond 

since 

upon 

amongst 

by 

through 

with 

around 

down 

throughout 

within 

at 

for 

till 

without 

Concerning,  during,  notwithstanding,  regarding,  respecting 
touching,  and  a  few  similar  words  of  participial  form  are 
usually  classed  as  prepositions. 

Certain  phrases  are  used  with  the  force  of  single  prepo- 
sitions. They  are  called  compound  prepositions ;  as, 
according  to,  in  place  of,  in  regard  to,  instead  of,  out  of,  on 
account  of. 

ORDER  OF   PARSING   PREPOSITIONS 

To  parse  a  preposition, — 

(i)  Name  the  part  of  speech. 

(2)  Tell  with  what  word  it  connects  its  object. 

(3)  State  the  relation  shown.^ 

Example.  —  He  goes  on  Sunday  to  the  church. 

—  Longfellow. 

1  With  young  pupils,  the  third  step  may  be  omitted. 


PREPOSITIONS'  173 

1.  On  is  a  preposition,  connecting   the   noun   Sunday  with  the 
verb  goes,  and  showing  the  relation  of  time. 

2.  To  is   a  preposition,    connecting   the  noun  church  with   the 
verb  goes,  and  showing  the  relation  of  place. 

EXERCISE  137 

Parse  the  prepositions  in  the  following  sentences,  and  tell 
the  use  of  each  prepositional  phrase :  — 

1.  At    midnight,    however,    I    was    aroused    by    the    tramp    of 
horses'  hoofs  in  the  yard. 

2.  Great  turtles  came  up  out  of  the  water,  and    crawled   along 
on  a  sandy  place.  — M.  Thompson. 

3.  The  scheme  failed  for  want  of  support. 

4.  The  love  that  leads  the  willing  spheres 
Along  the  unending  track  of  years 
And  watches  o'er  the  sparrow's  nest, 

Shall  brood  above  thy  winter  rest.  —  Bryant. 

5.  With  my  cross-bow 

I  shot  the  Albatross.  — Coleridge. 

6.  The  little  bird  sits  at  his  door  in  the  sun.  — Lowell. 

7.  On  the  cross-beam  under  the  Old  South  bell 
The  nest  of  a  pigeon  is  builded  well. 

In  summer  and  winter  that  bird  is  there, 

Out  and  in  with  the  morning  air; 

I  love  to  see  him  track  the  street. 

With  his  wary  eye  and  active  feet; 

And  I  often  watch  him  as  he  springs. 

Circling  the  steeple  with  easy  wings. 

Till  across  the  dial  his  shade  has  passed. 

And  the  belfry  edge  is  gained  at  last.  — N.  P.  Willis. 


174  El^GLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   LXVI 

CLASSES  OF   CONJUNCTIONS 

I.     COORDINATING   CONJUNCTIONS 

Find  in  the  following  examples  conjunctions  that  con- 
nect words,  phrases,  or  clauses  of  like  kind,  or  having  the 
same  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence :  — 

1.  Art  is  long,  and  time  is  fleeting. 

2.  Games  and  carols  closed  the  day. 

3.  The  house  was  silent  and  deserted. 

4.  You  see  where  Warren  fell,  and  where  other  patriots  fell 
with  him. 

Words,  phrases,  and  clauses  of  Hke  kind,  or  standing  in 
the  same  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  are  said  to 
have  the  same  construction  or  to  be  of  equal  rank.  Con- 
junctions that  connect  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  of  equal 
rank,  are   coordinating   conjunctions.      They  may  connect  — 

(i)  Two  independent  clauses;  as,  Be  diligent,  and  yon 
will  succeed. 

(2)  Two  words  in  the  same  construction ;  as,  The  min- 
strel was  infirm  and  old. 

(3)  Two  phrases  in  the  same  construction ;  as,  They  are 
alike  in  voice  and  in  matmer. 

(4)  Two  dependent  clauses  in  the  same  construction; 
as.  No  one  could  tell  whence  they  came  or  whither  they 
went. 


CLASSES    OF   CONJUNCTIONS  175 

Coordinating  conjunctions  are  divided  into  the  following 
classes :  — '■ 

(i)  Copulative,  those  that  join  similar  parts;  as,  and, 
a/so,  besides,  likewise,  moreover. 

(2)  Adversative,  those  that  join  parts  opposed  in  mean- 
ing ;  as,  but,  yet,  hoivever,  still,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding. 

(3)  Alternative,  those  that  imply  a  choice  between  two ; 
as,  either — or,  neither — nor,  whether — or. 

(4)  Causal,  those  that  express  cause  or  consequence;  as, 
for,  therefore,  hence,  consequently. 

Conjunctions   used   in    paij-s   are   called   correlatives ;    as, 

both  —  and,    either — or,    neither — nor,    not — but,    not    only 

—  but. 

EXERCISE   138 

Point  out  the  coordinating  conjunctions  i^i  the  following 
examples,  and  tell  what  they  join  :  — 

1.  The  shower  was  now  over,  and  a  rainbow  above  the  eastern 
wood  promised  a  fair  evening. 

2.  Either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing. 

3.  Through  days  of  sorrow  and  of  mirth. 

4.  Be  just,  and  fear  not. 

5.  He  calls  on  the   people  not   only  to   defend,  but  to  study 
and  understand  their  rights  and  privileges. 

6.  This  lesson  is  plain,  and  easily  appHed. 

7.  Their  route  now  lay  over  rough  ground,  and  their  progress  was 
slow. 

8.  He  was  interrupted  by  the  flash  and  report  of  a  rifle. 

9.  We  know  what  we  are,  but  know  not  what  we  may  be. 

10.  The  time  we  live  ought  not  to  be  computed  by  the  numbei 
of  years,  but  by  the  use  that  has  been  made  of  them. 


176  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

11.  Virtuous  and  wise  he  was,  yet  not  severe. 

12.  I  know  not  whether  to  go  or  to  remain. 

13.  He  does  not  deserve  to  succeed;  for  he  will  not  put  forth 
effort. 

14.  Give  me  neither  poverty  nor  riches. 

15.  He  was  small  of  stature,  and  sUght  in  frame. 

16.  Read  not  to  contradict,  nor  to  believe,  but  to  weigh  and 
consider. 

II.     SUBORDINATING  CONJUNCTIONS 

Name  the  dependent  clause  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences,  state  its  use,  and  tell  how  it  is  joined  to  the  prin- 
cipal clause :  — 

1.  I  would  grant  your  request  if  I  could. 

2.  He  came,  because  he  was  needed. 

3.  Be  silent,  that  you  may  hear. 

Conjunctions  that  connect  a  dependent  or  subordinate  clause 
to  a  principal  clause  are  subordinating  conjunctions.  They 
denote  — 

(i)  Time;  as,  after,  before,  ere,  since,  till,  when,  while,  as. 

(2)  Place ;  as,  where,  whence. 

(3)  Manner  and  comparison ;  as,  than,  as. 

(4)  Cause  or  reason ;   as,  because,  since,  as,  that,  whereas. 

(5)  End  or  purpose ;   as,  that,  lest. 

(6)  Condition ;  as,  if,  unless,  except. 

(7)  Concession ;   as,  though,  although. 

Certain  phrases  performing  the  office  of  conjunctions 
may  be  called  compound  conjunctions ;  as,  but  also,  as  well 
aSf  as  if,  as  though. 


HOW   TO   PARSE   CONJUNCTIONS  177 

EXERCISE   139 

Find  the  siibordiftating  conjunctions  in  the  following  sen- 
tences, and  tell  ivhat  each  denotes :  — 

1.  I  have  not  seen  him  since  he  was  a  child. 

2.  He  labored  earnestly  that  abuses  might  be  reformed. 

3.  Love  not  sleep  lest  thou  come  to  poverty. 

4.  Live  well  that  you  may  die  well. 

5.  His  stories  are  good  to  hear  at  night,  because  we  can 
dream  about  them  asleep ;  and  good  in  the  morning,  too,  be- 
cause then  we  can  dream  about  them  awake. 

6.  Now  had  the  season  returned  when  the  nights  grow  colder 
and  longer. 

7.  A  clownish  air  is  but  a  small  defect ;  yet  it  is  enough  to 
make  a  man  disagreeable. 

8.  Since  we  must  fight  it  through,  why  not  put  ourselves  in  a 
state  to  enjoy  all  the  benefit  of  victory,  if  we  gain  the  victory. 

9.  A  great  black  cloud  had  been  gathering  in  the  sky  for 
some  time  past,  although  it  had  not  overspread  the  sun. 

10.   Speak  clearly,  if  you  would  be  understood. 


CHAPTER   LXVII 

HOW   TO   PARSE   CONJUNCTIONS 

To  parse  a  conjunction,  tell  — 

1.  Its  class  —  coordinating  or  subordinating. 

2.  Its  use  —  state  what  it  connects. 

Example    i.  —  Hear   me   for   my    cause,    and  be    silent, 
that  you  may  hear. 


1/8  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

1.  And  is  a  coordinating  conjunction,  connecting  the  two  in- 
dependent members,  "Hear  me  for  my  cause,"  and  "be  silent, 
that  you  may  hear." 

2.  That  is  a  subordinating  conjunction,  connecting  the  subor- 
dinate clause,  "you  may  hear,"  to  the  principal  clause,  "be  silent." 

Example  2.  —  Is  the  night  chilly  and  dark .? 

I.  Afid  is  a  coordinating  conjunction,  connecting  the  two 
adjectives  chilly  and  dark. 

EXERCISE  140 
Parse  the  conjunctions  in  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  My  hair  is  gray,  but  not  with  years. 

Nor  grew  it  white 
In  a  single  night. 
As  men's  have  grown  from  sudden  fears  : 
My  limbs  are  bowed,  though  not  with  toil, 

But  rusted  with  a  vile  repose, 
For  they  have  been  a  dungeon's  spoil, 
And  mine  has  been  the  fate  of  those 
To  whom  the  goodly  earth  and  air 
Are  banned,  and  barred,  —  forbidden  fare.  — Byron. 

2.  Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 

A  youth  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown.— Gray. 

3.  They  deserved  respect ;  for  they  were  good  men  as  well  as 
brave.  —  Hawthorne. 

4.  On  either  side  the  river  lie 

Long  fields  of  barley  and  of  rye.— Tennyson. 

5.  Neither  a  borrower  nor  a  lender  be.  — Shakespeare. 


REVIEW   OF   CONJUNCTIONS  1 79 

6.  As  Caesar  loved  me,  I  wept  for  him  ;  as  he  was  fortunate, 
I  rejoice  at  it;  as  he  was  vaHant,  I  honor  him:  but,  as  he  was 
ambitious,  I  slew  him.  — Shakespeare. 

7.  The  test  of  a  people  is  not  in  its  occupations,  but  in  its 
heroes.  — T.  w.  higginson. 

8.  Then  they  praised  him,  soft  and  low. 

Called  him  worthy  to  be  loved. 
Truest  friend  and  noblest  foe ; 

Yet  she  neither  spoke  nor  moved.— Tennyson. 

9.  One  whole  month  elapsed  before  I  knew  the  fate  of  the 
cargo. 

10.  The  works  of  Milton  cannot  be  comprehended  or  enjoyed, 
unless  the  mind  of  the  reader  cooperate  with  that  of  the  writer. 
He  does  not  paint  a  finished  picture,  or  play  for  a  mere  passive 
listener.  Ke  sketches,  and  leaves  others  to  fill  up  the  outline. 
He  strikes  the  key-note,  and  expects  his  hearer  to  make  out  the 
melody.  —  Macaulay, 

EXERCISE  141 

REVIEW  OF  CONJUNCTIONS 

Name  the  two  leading  classes  of  conjunctions.  What  is 
a  coordinating  conjunction  ?  What  is  meant  by  v^ords, 
phrases,  or  clauses  of  equal  rank .''  Illustrate.  Tell  how 
coordinating  conjunctions  are  classified,  and  give  examples 
of  each  class. 

What  is  a  subordinating  conjunction  ?  Mention  some  of 
the  different  relations  denoted  by  subordinating  conjunc- 
tions, and  give  illustrations. 

What  are  correlative  conjunctions  ?     Give  examples. 

Mention  phrases  that  are  used  as  conjunctions. 


l8o  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER    LXVIII 

INTERJECTIONS 

Since  interjections  are  not  grammatically  related  to  the 
other  words  in  a  sentence,  the  parsing  of  an  interjection  con- 
sists  in  simply  naming  the  part  of  speech. 

EXERCISE  142 

Name  the  interjections  in  the  following  sentences^  and  tell 
what  feeling  each  expresses :  — 

1.  Ah  !  what  would  the  world  be  to  us 

If  the  children  were  no  more  ?  —  Longfellow. 

2.  Hark  !  let  me  listen  for  the  swell  of  the  surf. 

3.  Ah  !  what  a  weary  race  my  feet  have  run.  —  Warton. 

4.  Oh  !  wherefore  come  ye  forth,  in  triumph  from  the  north? 

—  Macaulay. 

5.  Alas  !  I  have  nor  hope  nor  health.  — Shelley. 

6.  And,  lo  !  from  far,  as  on  they  pressed,  there  came  a  glittering 
band.  —  Hemans. 

7.  Hark  !  hark  !  the  lark  at  heaven's  gate  sings. 

8.  Ha  !  laugh'st  thou,  Lochiel,  my  vision  to  scorn  ? 

9.  For,  lo  !  the  blazing,  rocking  roof 

Down,  down  in  thunder  falls  !  —  Horace  Smith. 

10.  Heigh  ho  !  daisies  and  buttercups, 
Fair  yellow  daffodils,  stately  and  tall. 

11.  O  joy  !  that  in  our  embers 

Is  something  that  doth  live.  —  Wordsworth. 


Part  Third 


.      SYNTAX 

Syntax  treats  of  the  grammatical  relations  of  words  in 
sentences.  The  relation  that  any  part  of  speech  bears  to 
other  parts  of  speech  in  the  same  sentence  is  called  its 
syntax  or  construction. 

CHAPTER    LXIX 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   NOUNS 

I.    NOMINATIVE  CASE 

Subject  Nominative 

(i)   The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case;  as, — 

Man  is  mortal.     /  sprang  to  the  stirrup. 

EXERCISE   143 

Find  the  subject  nominatives  in  the  following  examples y  and 
tell  of  what  verb  each  is  a  subject :  — 

1.  The  fleet  consisted  of  nine  vessels. 

2.  Up  flew  the  windows  all. 

3.  Facts  always  yield  the  place  of  honor  in  conversation,  to 
thoughts  about  facts. 

4.  Not  a  ripple  stirred  on  the  glassy  surface  of  the  lake. 

181 


l82  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

5.  Somewhat  back  from  the  village  street 

Stands  the  old-fashioned  country-seat. 
Across  its  antique  portico 
Tall  poplar-trees  their  shadows  throw ; 
And  from  its  station  in  the  hall 
An  ancient  timepiece  says  to  all, — 
"  Forever  —  never  ! 
Never  —  forever  !  "  —Longfellow. 

Predicate  Nominative 

(2)  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  complete  the  predicate  after 
certain  intransitive  verbs,  such  as  be,  become,  appear,  look,  and 
seem,  and  after  the  passive  forms  of  a  few  transitive  verbs 
like  make,  call,  choose,  and  elect  is  in  the  nominative  case; 
as, — 

Webster  was  a  statesman.     He  was  elected  senator. 

The  noun  that  completes  the  predicate  in  this  manner  refers 
to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the  verb,  and 
is  in  the  same  case  as  the  word  explained.  It  is  called  a 
predicate  noun  or  a  predicate  nominative.^ 

Infinitives  and  participles  of  verbs  of  the  class  just  named 
take  the  same  c^se  after  them  as  before  them,  when  both 
nouns  or  pronouns  denote  the  same  person  or  thing ;  as,  — 

//  was  thought  to  be  he.     We  asked  him  to  be  our  leader. 
He,  being  a  foreigner,  was  ineligible  to  office. 

^  The  noun  or  adjective  that  completes  the  predicate  m  this  manner  is 
sometimes  called  an  attribute  complement. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF   NOUNS  183 

EXERCISE    144 

Parse  the  nouns  in  the  folloiving  examples^  and  tell  to 
what  each  predicate  fiominative  refers :  — 

1.  Every  man's  task  is  his  life-preserver. 

2.  I  am  monarch  of  all  I  survey. 

3.  Our  fortress  is  the  good  greenwood, 

Our  tent  the  cypress-tree. 

4.  Toil  is  the  condition  of  our  being. 

5.  The  colonists  were  now  no  longer  freemen  ;  they  were  entirely 
dependent  on  the  King's  pleasure. 

6.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest  seamen  of  his  time,  and  was  a 
favorite  with  his  sailors. 

7.  Every  day  is  a  little  life ;  and  our  whole  Hfe  is  but  a  day 
repeated. 

8.  Each  tree  is  an  individual  and  has  a  personal  character. 

Apposition 

A  noun  or  pronoun  added  to  another  noun  or  pronoun 
to  explain  its  meaning  is  called  an  appositive,  or  is  said  to 
be  in  apposition  with  the  word  explained. 

(3)  An  appositive  is  in  the  same  case  as  the  word  explained; 

as, — 

Motley,  the  historian,  was  an  American.     (Nominative  case.) 
We  met  your  brother,  \ht  general.     (Objective  case.) 
Have    you   seen    Gibson,    the    artisfs^   drawings?      (Possessive 
case.) 

^  See  page  50. 


l84  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE   145 

Find  the  appositives  in  the  following  examples,  state  the 
case  of  each^  and  tell  why  it  is  in  that  case :  — 

1.  Spenser,  the  poet,  lived  in  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

2.  The  tiger,  an  animal  equal  to  the  Hon  in  size,  is  a  native 
of  Asia. 

3.  He  went  to  his  old  resort,  the  village  inn. 

4.  These  gay  idlers,  the  butterflies, 
Broke,  to-day,  from  their  winter  shroud. 

5.  Samuel  Adams,  the  distinguished  patriot,  died  in  1803. 

6.  An  ancient  clock,  that  important  article  of  cottage  furniture, 
ticked  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  room. 

7.  The  harp,  his  sole  remaining  joy, 
Was  carried  by  an  orphan  boy. 

8.  My  friend,  Sir  Roger,  being  a  good  churchman,  has  beauti- 
fied the  inside  of  his  church  with  several  texts  of  his  own  choosing. 

Nominative  Absolute 

(4)  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  absolutely  with  a  participle, 
its  case  not  depending  upon  any  other  word,  is  in  the  nomi- 
native  case  absolute;  as, — 

The  fog  being  very  dense,  we  could  not  safely  proceed. 
The  mountains  rose,  peak  [being]  above  peak.  • 

EXERCISE  146 

Name  the  nouns  and  the  pronouns  that  are  in  the  nominative 
absolute,  and  tell  with  what  participle,  expressed  or  under- 
stood, each  is  used:  — 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   NOUNS  185 

1.  The  storm  having  ceased,  the  ships  sailed. 

2.  Paul  preached  and  taught  with  all   confidence,  no  man  for- 
bidding him. 

3.  His  calling  laid  aside,  he  lived  at  ease. 

4.  The  supper  being  over,  the  strangers  requested  to  be  shown 
to  their  place  of  repose. 

5.  But  the  lark  is  so  brimful  of  gladness  and  love 
The  green  fields  below  him,  the  blue  sky  above. 

—  Coleridge. 

Nominative  of  Address 

(5)  A  noun  used  to  name  a  person  or  thing  addressed  is 
in  the  nominative  case  of  address ;  as,  — 

Watchman,  tell  us  of  the  night. 
O  grave,  where  is  thy  victory? 

EXERCISE  147 

Parse  in  full  the   nouns   that  are  in   the   nominative   of 
address :  — 

1.  O  Father  !   I  hear  the  sound  of  guns. 

2.  The  fault,  dear  Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars, 

But  in  ourselves,  that  we  are  underlings. —Shakespeare. 

3.  Veterans !    you    are    the    remnant    of    many    a    well-fought 
field.  —  Webster. 

4.  Oh  Life  !    I  breathe  thee  in  the  breeze.  — Bryant. 

5.  Good  friends,  sweet  friends,  let  me  not  stir  you  up  to  such 
a  sudden  flood  of  mutiny.  —  Shakespeare. 

EXERCISE  148 

Write  sentences  illustrating  five  different  constructions  of 
a  noun  in  the  nominative  case. 


l86  '  ENGLISH    GRA'MMAR 

II.   POSSESSIVE  CASE 

Possessive  Modifier 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  a  possessive  modifier  is  in  the 
possessive  case ;  as,  — 

A  friend  should  bear  his  friend^ s  infirmities. 

The  noun  denoting  the  thing  possessed  is  sometimes 
omitted ;  as,  — 

Our  first  visit  in  Rome  was  to  St  Peter's. 

When  two  nouns  in  the  possessive  case  are  in  appo- 
sition, only  the  noun  immediately  preceding  the  modified 
term,   expressed  or  understood,   takes  the  possessive   sign ; 

as,  — 

For  thy  servant  David's  sake. 

For  the  queen's  sake,  his  sister.  —  Byron. 
EXERCISE   149 

Parse  the  noims  in  the  following  examples :  — 

1.  The  village  was  two  days'  journey  fi-om  the  sea. 

2.  Buckingham  Palace  fi-onts  on  St.  James's  Park. 

3.  Let  all  the  ends  thou  aim'st  at  be  thy  country's,  thy  God's, 
and  truth's.  — Shakespeare. 

4.  At  a  little  distance  from  Sir  Roger's  house,  among  the 
ruins  of  an  old  abbey,  there  is  a  long  walk  of  aged  elms,  which 
are  shot  up  so  very  high,  that,  when  one  passes  under  them,  the 
rooks  and  crows  that  rest  upon  the  tops  of  them  seem  to  be 
cawing  in  another  region.  — Addison. 

5.  There,  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose, 
The  village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose.  — Goldsmith. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   NOUNS  1 87 

6.  We  have  no  bird  whose  song  will  match  the  nightingale's 
in  compass,  none  whose  note  is  so  rich  as  that  of  the  European 
blackbird  ;  but  for  mere  rapture  I  have  never  heard  the  bobolink's 
rival.  —  Lowell. 

III.   OBJECTIVE  CASE 

Direct  Object 

(i)  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  direct  object^  of  a 
transitive  verb  (or  of  its  participles  or  infinitives)  is  in  the 
objective  case ;  as,  — 

Choose  the  timbers  with  greatest  care. 
The  pillars  supporting  the  roof  are  strong. 
I  come  to  bury   Ccesar,  not  to  praise  him. 

EXERCISE   150 

Find  in  the  following  examples  the  nouns  and  tJie  pronotms 
that  are  used  as  direct  objects,  and  tell  of  zvhat  each  is  the 
object :  — 

I .  One  of  the  favorite  themes  of  boasting  with  the  Squire,  is  the 
noble  trees  on  his  estate,  which,  in  truth,  has  some  of  the  finest  that 
I  have  seen  in  England.  There  is  something  august  and  solemn  in 
the  great  avenues  of  stately  oaks  that  gather  their  branches  together 
high  in  air,  and  seem  to  reduce  the  pedestrians  beneath  them  to 
mere  pygmies.  "An  avenue  of  oaks  or  elms,"  the  Squire  observes, 
"  is  the  true  colonnade  that  should  lead  to  a  gentleman's  house.  As 
to  stone  and  marble,  any  one  can  rear  them  at  once  —  they  are  the 
work  of  the  day ;  but  commend  me  to  the  colonnades  that  have 
grown  old  and  great  with  the  family,  and  tell  by  their  grandeur  how 
long  the  family  has  endured."  ... 

^  See  page  46. 


1 88  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

It  is  with  great  difficulty  that  the  Squire  can  ever  be  brought  to 
have  any  tree  cut  down  on  his  estate.  To  some  he  looks  with  rever- 
ence, as  having  been  planted  by  his  ancestors  ;  to  others  with  a  kind 
of  paternal  affection,  as  having  been  planted  by  himself;  and  he  feels 
a  degree  of  awe  in  bringing  down,  with  a  few  strokes  of  the  axe, 
what  it  has  cost  centuries  to  build  up.  — Irving,  Bracebridge  Hall. 

Object  of  Preposition 

(2)  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  object  ^  of  a  preposition 
is  in  the  objective  case  ;  as,  — 

We  spoke  not  a  word  of  sorrow. 
Come  with  me. 

EXERCISE  151 

Select  the  objects  of  the  prepositions  in  the  following  selection^ 
and  tell  to  what  words  they  are  joined  by  the  prepositions :  — 

Shut  in  from  all  the  world  without. 
We  sat  the  clean-winged  hearth  about, 
Content  to  let  the  north-wind  roar 
In  baffled  rage  at  pane  and  door. 
While  the  red  logs  before  us  beat 
The  frost-hne  back  with  tropic  heat ; 
And  ever,  when  a  louder  blast 
Shook  beam  and  rafter  as  it  passed. 
The  merrier  up  its  roaring  draught 
The  great  throat  of  the  chimney  laughed, 
The  house-dog  on  his  paws  outspread 
Laid  to  the  fire  his  drowsy  head. 
The  cat's  dark  silhouette  on  the  wall 
A  couchant  tiger's  seemed  to  fall ; 
1  See  page  18. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   NOUNS  I89 

And,  for  the  winter  fireside  meet, 
Between  the  andirons'  straddling  feet, 
The  mug  of  cider  simmered  slow, 
The  apples  sputtered  in  a  row, 
And,  close  at  hand,  the  basket  stood 
With  nuts  from  brown  October's  wood. 

—  Whittier,  Snow-Bound. 

Indirect  Object 

(3)  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  an  indirect  object  to  show 
to  whom  or  for  whom  or  what  something  is  done  is  in  the 
objective  (or  dative)  case;  as, — 

He  gave  the  man  [indirect  object]  a  coat  [direct  object]  (=  He 
gave  a  coat  to  the  man) . 

She  bought  the  bird  [indirect  object]  a  cage  [direct  object] 
(=She  bought  a  cdigt  for  the  bird). 

Usually  the  indirect  object  alone  is  used  when  the  noun 
stands  next  the  verb,  the  preposition  when  the  noun  is 
separated  from  the  verb. 

EXERCISE  152 

Tell  which  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  take  two 
objects^  and  name  the  direct  and  the  indirect  object  in  each 
case :  — 

1.  Give  every  man  thy  ear,  but  few  thy  voice. 

2.  Then  give  him,  for  a  soldier  meet, 
A  soldier's  cloak  for  winding-sheet. 

3.  The  sand  ridge  ran  for  a  long  way  back  into  the  swamp, 
and  thus  gave  me  a  safe  and  easy  road  to  the  heart  of  a  typical 
jungle. 


I90  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

4.  I  thrice  presented  him  a  kingly  crown. 

5.  He  giveth  His  beloved  sleep. 

6.  Build  thee  more  stately  mansions,  O  my  soul. 

7.  I  made  me  great  works ;  I  builded  me  homes ;  I  planted 
me  vineyards. 

8.  Friends,  Romans,  countrymen,  lend  me  your  ears. 

Objective  Predicate 

(4)  A  noun  used  as  an  objective  predicate  is  in  the  objective 

case  ;  as,  — 

They  made  him  secretary. 

An  objective  predicate,  as  in  the  example  above,  com- 
pletes the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb,  and  describes  its 
object.  When  the  verbs  make,  appoint,  elect,  call,  choose, 
and  others  of  similar  meaning,  take  a  complement  which 
describes  the  direct  object  of  the  verb,  they  are  said  to  be 
factitive,  and  the  complement  is  often  called  the  factitive 
object.  When  verbs  of  this  class  are  used  in  the  passive 
voice,  they  are  followed  by  the  predicate  nominative.  (See 
page   182);  as,  — 

He  will  be  made  secretary, 

EXERCISE   153 

Select  the  objective  predicates  in  the  follozving  examples, 
tell  what  verb  each  completes,  and  what  it  describes:  — 

1.  They  made  me  queen  of  the  May. 

2.  Few  men  make  themselves  masters  of  things  they  write  01 
speak. 

3.  One  touch  of  nature  makes  the  whole  world  kin. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   NOUNS  191 

4.  And  Simon  he  surnamed  Peter. 

5.  Time  makes  the  worst  enemies  friends. 

6.  And  God  called  the  light  Day,  and  the  darkness  he  called 
Night. 

Adverbial  Objective 

(5)  A* noun  used  adverbially  to  modify  a  verb,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb,  by  denoting  iime,  distance,  weight,  value,  etc., 
is  an  adverbial  object,  and  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case, 
adverbially  ;  as,  — 

He  held  the  office  three  years. 
The  walk  is  three  feet  wide. 
Do  not  remain  a  moment  longer. 

EXERCISE   154 

Find  the  adverbial  objects,  and  tell  what  each  modifies :  — 

1.  An  hour  they  sat  in  counsel.  — Browning. 

2.  My  little  ones  kissed  me  a  thousand  times  o'er.  — Campbell. 

3.  I  therefore  walked  back  by  the  horseway,  which  was  five 
miles  round.  — Goldsmith. 

4.  So  all  night  long  the  storm  roared  on.  — Whittier. 

5.  And  a  good  south  wind  sprung  up  behind ; 

The  Albatross  did  follow, 
And  every  day,  for  food  or  play. 

Came  to  the  mariner's  hollo  !  — Coleridge. 

Cognate  Objective 

Some  verbs  are  followed  by  a  noun  which  repeats  the 
meaning  of  the  verb.     This  is  called  a  cognate  object ;  as,  — 

I  dreamed  a  dream.  I  ran  a  race. 


192  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

(6)  A  noun  used  as  a  cognate  object  is  in  the  objective 
case. 

EXERCISE   155 

Name  the  cognate  objectives  in  the  following  examples^ 
and  tell  hozv  each  is  used:  — 

1.  I  have  fought  a  good  fight. 

2.  Behold,  I  dream  a  dream  of  good. 

3.  He  sleeps  the  sleep  of  the  just. 

4.  Let  me  die  the  death  of  the  righteous. 

5.  Well  hast  thou  fought  the  better  fight. 

EXERCISE   156 

REVIEW  OF  CONSTRUCTION   OF  NOUNS 

Write  sentences  illustrating  six  different  constructions  of 
a  noun  in  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISE  157 

State  the  construction  of  each  italicized  word  in  the 
following  selection :  — 

For  my  part,  I  was  always  a  bungler  at  all  lands  of  sport  that 
required  either  patience  or  adroitness,  and  had  not  angled  above 
half  an  hotir,  before  I  had  completely  "  satisfied  the  sentiment,  ' 
and  convinced  myself  of  the  truth  of  Izaak  Walton's  opinion,  that 
angling  is  something  like  poetry  —  a  man  must  be  born  to  it.  I 
hooked  myself  instead  of  the  fish ;  tangled  my  line  in  every  tree ; 
lost  my  bait ;  broke  my  rod ;  until  I  gave  up  the  attempt  in 
despair,  and  passed  the  day  under  the  trees,  reading  old  Izaak ; 
satisfied  that  it  was  his  fascinating  vein  of  honest  simplicity  and 
rural  feeling  that  had  bewitched  me,  and  not  the  passion  for  angling. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  PRONOUNS  193 

My  companions,  however,  were  more  persevering  in  their  delusion. 
I  have  them  at  this  moment  before  my  eyes,  steahng  along  the 
border  of  the  brook,  where  it  lay  open  to  the  day,  or  was  merely 
fringed  by  shrubs  and  bushes.  I  see  the  bittern  rising  with  hollow 
scream,  as  they  break  in  upon  his  rarely-invaded  haunt ;  the  king- 
fisher watching  them  suspiciously  from  his  dry  tree  that  over- 
hangs the  deep  black  mill-pond,  in  the  gorge  of  the  hills ;  the 
tortoise  letting  himself  slip  sideways  from  off  the  stone  or  log  on 
which  he  is  sunning  himself;  and  the  panic-struck  frog  plump- 
ing in  headlong  as  they  approach,  and  spreading  an  alarm  through- 
out the  watery  world  around.  —  Irving,  The  Sketch- Book. 


CHAPTER   LXX 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   PRONOUNS 
I.     AGREEMENT   WITH  ANTECEDENT 

A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  person, 
number,    and   gender. 

Antecedents  modified  by  each,  every,  and  no  are  singular; 

as, — 

Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit. 

When  reference  is  made  to  an  antecedent  that  may 
denote  a  person  of  either  sex,  the  pronoun  of  the  mascu- 
line gender  is  generally  used ;    as,  — 

Each  contributed  what  he  could. 

When  the  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun,  it  is  neuter, 
and  singular  if  reference  is  made  to  the  collection  as  a  whole, 


194  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

but   plural  if   reference   is    made   to   the   individuals  in  the 
collection  separately  ;   as,  — ■ 

The  army  proceeded  on  its  march. 

The  army  left  their  camp  utensils  behind  them. 

EXERCISE  158 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  filling  the  blanks  with 
suitable  pronouns.  Give  in  each  case  a  reason  for  your 
choice :  — 

1.  The  committee   decided   the   matter   without   leaving  

seats. 

2.  All  passengers  must  show  tickets. 

3.  Every  passenger  must  show  ticket. 

4.  Somebody  left umbrella. 

5.  Men  at  some  time  are  masters  of fate. 

6.  Neither  would  admit  that  was  in  the  wrong. 

7.  Each  soldier  carried  own  gun. 

8.  Happy,  thrice  happy,  every  one 
Who  sees  labor  well  begun. 

9.  One  who  would  succeed  must  learn  to  think  for  '■. 


10.  The  committee  has  offered  to  refund  the  amount  which 
received  from  the  company. 

11.  Every  man  must  bear  own  burden. 

1 2.  The  soldiers  paused  on march. 

EXERCISE  159 

State  the  person,  number,  and  gender  of  each  italicized 
pronoun  i7i  the  following  examples,  giving  reasons  for  youf 
statements :  — 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   PRONOUNS  I95 

1.  The  house  stood  among  flourishing  apple-trees,  three  01 
four  of  which  are  yet  standing. 

2.  Every  opinion  reads  on  him  who  utters  it. 

3.  He  who  thinks  much  of  himself  will  be  in  danger  of  being 
forgotten  by  the  rest  of  the  world. 

4.  He  was  surrounded  by  a  shouting  multitude,  most  of  whom 
had  been  born  in  the  country  which  he  had  helped  to  found. 

5.  So  the  Deacon  inquired  of  the  village  folk 
Where  he  could  find  the  strongest  oak. 

That  couldn't  be  spHt  nor  bent  nor  broke. —  O.  W.  Holmes. 

6.  Few,  few  were  they  whose  swords  of  old 

Won  the  fair  land  in  which  we  dwell.  —  Bryant. 

7.  That  is  a  good  book  which  is  opened  with  expectation,  and 
closed  with  profit. 

8.  Thou  art  Freedom's  now,  and  Fame's, 
One  of  the  few,  the  immortal  names, 
That  were  not  born  to  die.  —  Halleck. 

II.     CASE   RELATIONS   OF  THE  PRONOUN 

The  case  relations  of  the  pronoun  are  nearly  the  same 
as  those  of  the  noun. 

EXERCISE  160 

State  the  case  of  each  italicized  pronoun  in  the  following 
examples y  and  tell  why  it  is  in  that  case:  — 

I.  Subject  Nominative 

I.  Who,  of  all  that  address  the  public  ear,  whether  in  church, 
or  court-house,  or  hall  of  state,  has  such  an  attentive  audience  as 
the  town-crier? 


19^  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

2.  Few  believed  the  report. 

3.  They  that  have  done  this  deed  are  honorable. 

4.  What  caused  the  trouble? 

II.   Predicate  Nominative 

5.  It  is  //   be  not  afraid. 

6.  All  mine  are  thine,  and  thine  are  inine, 

7.  Who  do  men  say  that  I  am? 

III.   Apposition 

8.  We  all  do  fade  as  a  leaf. 

9.  They  love  each  other. 

10.  The  singer,  she  whom  you  most  wished  to  hear,  is  ill. 

11.  I  myself  was  surprised  at  the  result. 

IV.   Nominative  Absolute 

12.  He  being  absent,  no  one  would  discuss  the  question. 

13.  Thou  looking  on,  I  shall  not  fail. 

V.  Nominative  of  Address 

14.  Thou,  who  wouldst  see  the  lovely  and  the  wild 
Mingled  in  harmony  on  Nature's  face, 

Ascend  our  rocky  mountains. 

15.  O  thou  that  hearest  prayer,  unto  thee  shall  all  flesh  come. 

VI.   Possessive  Modifier 

16.  And  they  whose  meadows  it  murmurs  through. 

Have  named  the  stream  from  its  own  fair  hue. 

17.  Two  robin  redbreasts  built  their  nest 
Within  a  hollow  tree. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   PRONOUNS  197 

VII.  Direct  Object 

1 8.  No  one  heard  him. 

19.  Seeing  me,  the  bird  flew. 

20.  We  expect  to  meet  them. 

VIII.  Object  of  Preposition 

21.  What  to  me  is  fame? 

22.  I  that  speak  unto  thee  am  he. 

23.  Stay,  lady,  stay  with  us. 

24.  Whom  did  you  speak  to? 

IX.  Indirect  Object 

25.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 

26.  Pay  me  that  thou  owest. 

27.  J/<?thinks  I  hear  a  step.^ 

III.     NOMINATIVE  AND   OBJECTIVE  FORMS 
EXERCISE   161 

Copy  the  following  sentiences,  inserting  the  proper'  form  of 

pronoun    in    each    blank.      Give    in   each   case   a    reason  for 

your  choice:  — 

I,  Me 

1.  She  and  found  the  nest. 

2.  He  or  will  deliver  your  message. 

3.  Between  you  and  ,  it  was  an  unwise  step. 

4.  The  books  were  sent  to  him  and . 

1  Methinks  is  an  impersonal  verb,  made  up  of  the  pronoun  me  and  the  verb 
think  (from  an  old  verb  meaning  to  seem  or  appear).  The  pronoun  me,  when 
combined  in  this  manner  with  the  verb  think  or  seem,  is  an  indirect  object. 
The  sentence  above  is  equivalent  to  "  It  seems  to  me  that  I  hear  a  step." 


198  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

5.  It  was that  opened  the  door. 

6.  Who  is  there?     . 

7.  Is  it  that  you  mean? 

8.  Robert  is  smaller  than . 

9.  He  is  as  strong  as  . 

10.  No  one  wishes  you  success  more  earnestly  than  . 

We,  Us 

11.  They  were  as  unfortunate  as  . 

12.  It  could  not  have  been  that  you  heard. 

13.  Let  change  our  plans. 

14.  They  have  greater  responsibilities  than  . 

Thou,  Thee 

15.   art  the  man. 

16.  Gray-headed  shepherd,  hast  spoken  well. 

17.  My  country,  'tis  of , 

Sweet  land  of  Hberty, 
Of I  sing. 

He,  Him 

18.  Is  coming? 

19.  If  I  were  ,  I  should  not  go. 

20.  I  that  speak  to  thee  am  . 

21.  You  know  as  well  as  that  this  work  should  be  done. 

22.  Will  you  go  with  and  me? 

She,  Her 

23.   and  I  will  assist  you. 

24.  Did  you  say  it  was  ? 

25.  We  asked  to  accompany  us. 

26.  The  flowers  were  given  to  and  me. 

27.  Was  it  that  you  wished  to  see? 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   ADJECTIVES 


199 


28. 
29. 
30- 


32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 

39 
40 
41 

42 


They,  Them 

Could  it  have  been  that  called? 

Let  do  the  work  in  their  own  way. 


No  two  are  better  fitted  for  the  task  than 
31.    Arrange  the  matter  between  you  and  

Who,  Whom 

did  you  meet? 

•  rang  the  bell? 

do  you  wish  to  see? 

is  it  that  you  wish  to  see? 

do  you  think  will  be  chosen? 

Do  you  know  I  am? 


I  am  he  you  seek. 

I  do  not  know  will  go. 

I  cannot  tell  to  send. 

It  was  the  secretary  wrote  the  letter. 

It  was  the  President  they  asked  to  speak. 


CHAPTER  LXXI 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  ADJECTIVES 

I.     USES  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE 

Which  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  modify 
nouns  directly,  and  which  modify  a  noun  or  a  pronoun 
through  the  verb?  — 

1.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath. 

2.  Ring  out,  wild  bells. 

3.  The  sky  is  clear. 

4.  He  painted  the  house  white. 

5.  Her  beauty  made  me  glad. 


200  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

I.  An  adjective  that  modifies  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  directly 
is  said  to  be  used  attributively;  as, — 

Drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  fold. 

II.  An  adjective  loosely  attached  to  its  noun  is  said  to 
be  used  appositively  ;  as,  — 

.  No  misfortune,  public  or  private,  could  oppress  him. 

III.  An  adjective  that  completes  the  predicate,  and 
shows  what  is  asserted  of  the  subject  of  the  verb,  or 
describes  the  object  of  the  verb,  is  called  a  predicate 
adjective,  or  is  said  to  be  used  predicatively ;  as,  — 

Snow  is  white. 

They  set  the  prisoner  free. 

In  poetry  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  for  an  adverb ; 

as,  — 

Silent  rows  the  gondolier. 

EXERCISE  162 
Tell   how   each    adjective    is    used   in    the  following  seU' 
tences : — 

1.  The  lamps  shone  o'er  fair  women  and  brave  men. 

2.  Is  it  where  the  feathery  palm-trees  rise, 
And  the  date  grows  ripe  under  sunny  skies? 
Or  'midst  the  green  islands  of  glittering  seas. 
Where  fragrant  forests  perfume  the  breeze? 

3.  The  fields  were  green,  and  the  sky  was  blue.  —  Southey. 

4.  The  sea  is  mighty,  but  a  mightier  sways 
His  restless  billows.  —  Bryant. 

5.  He  wrapped  her  warm  in  his  seaman's  coat. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    ADJECTIVES  201 

6.  My  keepers  grew  compassionate. 

7.  Besides,  our  losses  have  made  us  thrifty. 

8.  A  single  sentinel  was  pacing  to  and  fro  beneath  the  arched 
gateway  which  leads  to  the  interior,  and  his  measured  footsteps  were 
the  only  sound  that  broke  the  breathless  silence  of  the  night. 

9.  His  faithful  dog  shall  bear  him  company. 

EXERCISE  163 

(i)  Write  four  sentences  containing  adjectives  used  attribzi- 
tively. 

(2)  Write  three  sentences  containing  adjectives  used  predi- 
cativefyf  with  intransitive  verbs, 

(3)  Write  three  sentences  containing  adjectives  used  predi- 
cativefyy  with  transitive  verbs. 

II.     AGREEMENT   WITH   NOUN 

Adjectives  denoting  one,  modify  nouns  in  the  singular ; 
those  denoting  more  than  one,  modify  nouns  in  the  plural. 

EXERCISE  164 

Justify  the  use  of  the  italicized  forms  in  the  following 
examples :  — 

1.  That  kind  of  exercise  does  no  good. 

2.  This  sort  of  trees  is  excellent  for  shade. 

3.  These  trees  are  too  near  together. 

4.  This  style  of  chairs  is  not  pleasing. 

5.  These  chairs  are  not  comfortable. 

6.  That  sort  of  people  will  always  make  trouble. 

7.  Have  you  examined  those  books? 

8.  Books  of  that  class  are  very  helpful. 


202  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

III.     COMPARATIVE  AND   SUPERLATIVE   FORMS 

The  comparative  degree  is  used  in  comparing  two  things  or 
classes  of  things  ;  as,  — 

James  is  taller  than  William. 
Silver  is  harder  than  gold. 

The  superlative  degree  is  used  in  comparing  one  thing  with 
all  others  of  the  same  kind  ;  as,  — 

James  is  the  tallest  boy  in  his  class. 

When  the  comparative  degree  is  used,  the  latter  term  of 
comparison  should  exclude  the  former ;  as,  — 

Africa  is  hotter  than  any  other  continent. 

When  the  superlative  is  used,  the  latter  term  should  in- 
clude the  former  ;  as,  — 

Africa  is  the  hottest  of  the  continents. 

EXERCISE   165 

Re-write  the  following  sentences,    inserting  the  preferred 
form :  — 

1.  He  is  the   (wiser,  wisest)   of  the  two. 

2.  This  design  is  the  (better,  best)   of  the  three. 

3.  The  crocodile  is  larger  than  (any,  any  other)  reptile. 

4.  The  crocodile  is  the  largest  of  (all,  all  other)  reptiles. 

5.  The   white    oak   has    a   wider  spread   than  (any,  any  other) 
American  tree. 

6.  The   pine    contains    a    greater    quantity    of   turpentine    than 
(any,  any  other)   family  of  resinous  trees. 

7.  Of  all   the   poets   called   Lake   Poets,   Wordsworth  was  the 
(greater,  greatest). 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   VERBS  203 

CHAPTER    LXXII 

CONSTRUCTION    OF   VERBS 
I.   AGREEMENT  WITH  SUBJECT 

What  determines  the  person  and  number  forms  of  the 
italicized  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  ?  — 

1.  The  stream  flows  swiftly. 

2.  Thou  art  the  man. 

3.  The  new  members  were  present. 

When  the  form  of  the  subject  determines  the  form  of 
the  verb,  a  verb  is  said  to  agree  with  its  subject.  Hence 
the  statement  — 

A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  person  and  num- 
ber ;  as,  — 

I  am.  Thou  art.  He  is.  We  are. 

Some  subjects  plural  in  form  are  singular  in  meaning 
and  take  verbs  in  the  singular ;  as,  — 

The  news  is  delayed. 

"  Twice-Told  Tales  "  was  written  by  Hawthorne. 

A  collective  noun  requires  a  verb  in  the  singular  when  it 
denotes  the  collection  as  a  whole,  and  a  verb  in  the  plural 
when  it  denotes  the  individuals  in  the  collection  separately ; 

as,  ^ — 

The  congregation  was  dismissed. 

The  whole  congregation  were  in  tears. 


204  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

Two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  connected  by  and 
require  a  verb  in  the  plural ;  as,  — 

Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

If  the  subjects  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing  or 
express  one  idea,  the  verb  must  be  singular ;  as,  — 

The  soldier  and  statesman  has  passed  away. 
The  horse  and  carriage  is  at  the  door. 
Two  years  seems  like  a  long  time. 

When  the  subjects  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  or  no, 
they  refer  to  things  considered  separately,  and  require  a 
verb  in  the  singular ;  as,  — 

Each  day  and  each  hour  brings  its  duties. 

Two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  connected  by  or,  either 

...  or,  or  neither  .  .  .  nor,   require  a  verb  in  the  singular  j 

as,  — 

He  or  she  was  in  the  wrong. 

Neither  he  nor  she  is  present. 

When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects  of  different  per- 
sons connected  by  or  or  noj%  it  is  generally  made  to  agree 
in  person  and  number  with  the  subject  nearest  to  it;  as, — 

Either  he  or  /  have  made  a  mistake. 
You  or  he  is  right. 

Or,  better,  the  construction  of  the  sentence  may  be 
changed.     Thus  — 

Either  he  has  made  a  mistake  or  I  have. 
You  are  right  or  he  is. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   VERBS  205 

EXERCISE  166 

State  the  persojt  and  the  number  of  each  italicized  vei^b  in 
the  following  sentence^  arid  tell  why  these  forms  are  used :  — 

1.  The  difficulties  were  all  over  now,  and  everything  was 
settled. 

2.  A  little  fire  is  quickly  trodden  out. 

3.  Delicacy  and  brilliancy  characterize  nearly  all  the  California 
flowers. 

4.  The  derivation  of  these  words  is  uncertain. 

5.  It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blows  nobody  good. 

6.  Neither  the  secretary  nor  the  treasurer  was  present. 

7.  The  army  is  needed  for  the  defence  of  the  country. 

8.  How  does  such  a  loose  pile  of  sticks  maintain  its  place 
during  a  heavy  wind  ? 

9.  A  hundred  eager  fancies  and  busy  hopes  keep  him  awake. 
ID.    The  council  were  divided  in  their  opinions. 

11.  Slow  and  sure  comes  up  the  golden  year. 

12.  Either  ability  or  inclination  was  wanting. 

13.  Let    us    hold    fast    the    great    truth    that    the    people    ar& 
responsible. 

14.  A  word  or  an  epithet  paints  a  whole  scene. 

15.  The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband /r^^i-.  —  Burns. 

16.  Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 

Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn. —  Milton. 

EXERCISE  167 

i\)  Write  three  sentences  in  each  of  which  the  verb  has 
two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by  and, 

(2)  Write  three  sentences  in  each  of  which  the  verb  has 
two  of  more  singular  subjects  connected  by  or  or  nor. 


206  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

(3)  Write  two  sentences  in  each  of  which  the  subject  is  a 
collective  noun  denoting  the  collection  as  a  whole. 

(4)  Write  two  sentejices  in  each  of  which  the  subject  is  a 
collective  n  'un  denoting  the  individuals  in  the  collection 
separately. 

II.     SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES 

The    tense   forms    of   verbs   in   subordinate   clauses   must 

correspond  to  the  tense  forms  used  in  the  principal  clauses; 

as,  — 

I  hope  you  can  come. 

I  hoped  you  could  come. 

He  does  this  that  you  may  see. 

He  did  this  that  you  might  see. 

He  says  that  the  work  shall  be  done. 

He  said  that  the  work  should  be  done. 

Verbs    like  hope,  expect,   intend,   referring  to  future  acts, 
are  followed  by  the  present  infinitive ;  as,  — 

I  intended  to  visit  the  museum. 
We  expected  to  remain  longer. 
I  had  intended  to  visit  the  museum. 
We  had  expected  to  remain  longer. 

EXERCISE   168 

Justify  the  use  of  the  italicized  tense  forms    in  the  fol- 
lowing examples:  — 

1.  She  walks  that  she  may  retain  her  health. 

2.  He  will  tell  you  that  he  will  do  his  best. 

3.  He  said  that  he  would  give  an  early  reply. 

4.  We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  do. 

5.  They  expected  to  see  us. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   INFINITIVES  20/ 

6.  She  seemed  to  feel  the  motion  of  the  vessel. 

7.  He  appeared  to  have  seen  better  days. 

8.  I  am  glad  to  have  met  you. 

9.  I  hoped  to  meet  you. 

10.    He  meant  to  finish  the  sketch. 

CHAPTER   LXXIII 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    INFINITIVES 

The  chief  constructions  of  the  infinitives,  including  those 
already  given,  are  the  following :  — 

I.  The   simple   infinitive,   without   to,    is   used   after   the 
verbs,  7nay^  caiiy  jmcst,  dare,  etc. ;  as,  — 

Men  must  work. 

II.  Both  the  infinitive  with  to  and  the  infinitive  in  -ing 
may  be  used,  like  a  noun  — 

(i)   As  the  subject  of  a  verb;    as, — 

To  see  is  to  believe. 
Seeing  is  believing. 

(2)  As  a  predicate  nominative ;    as,  — 

To  hesitate  is  to  fail. 
Begging  is  not  serving. 

(3)  As  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb;    as, — 

We  propose  to  call  a  meeting. 
We  propose  calling  a  meeting. 

(4)  As  the  object  of  a  preposition. 

She  was  about  to  speak. 

On  reaching  the  door,  he  paused. 


208  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

III.  The  infinitive  with  to  is  used  — 
(i)  As  an  adjective  modifier;  as, — 

There  is  a  time  to  weep. 

(2)  As  an  adverbial  modifier  ;  as,  — • 

Strive  to  excel. 

She  is  eager  to  go. 

He  is  old  enough  to  know  better. 

(3)  To  express  purpose,  consequence,  etc. ;  as,  — 

He  came  to  assist  his  comrades. 

(4)  EUiptically  or  absolutely;  as, — 

He  was  petrified,  so  to  speak. 

To  tell  the  truth,  I  do  not  beheve  it. 

IV.  The  infinitive,  usually  with  to,  is  used  with  a  noun 
or  a  pronoun  as  the  object  of  a  verb ;  as,  — 

He  ordered  the  troops  to  advance. 
I  asked  him  to  sing. 

In  this  construction,  the    noun    or  the  pronoun  which  is 

used  with  the  infinitive  as  the  object  of    the  verb  is  called 

the  subject   of   the   infinitive.     The  subject  of  an  infinitive 
is  in  the  objective  case. 

A  few  simple  verbs,  such  as  let,  hear,  make,  see,  etc.,  take 
in  this  construction  the  simple  infinitive;  as,  Let  me  go; 
I  saw  him  fall. 

V.  The  infinitive  in  -ing,  like  the  noun,  takes  a  posses- 
sive noun  or  pronoun;  as, — 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   INFINITIVES  209 

Much  depends  on  Robert's  receiving  the  message. 
His  coming  was  not  unexpected. 

EXERCISE  169 

Point  out  the  infinitives  in  the  following  sentences^  and 
state  the  construction  of  each  :  — 

1.  For  him,  to  hear  is  to  obey. 

2.  A  sower  went  forth  to  sow. 

3.  He  taught  her  to  see  new  beauties  in  nature.  -  Irving. 

4.  I  come  not,  friends,  to  steal  away  your  hearts. 

5.  The  sun  is  just  about  to  set. —Tennyson. 

6.  And  many  a  holy  text  around  she  strews 
That  teach  the  rustic  moraHst  to  die. —Gray. 

7.  She  heard  the  birds  sing,  she 
Saw  the  sun  shine.  — Longfellow. 

8.  After  tarrying  a  few  days  in  the  bay,  our  voyagers  weighed 
anchor,  to  explore  a  mighty  river  which   emptied   into  the   bay. 

9.  And  fools  who  came  to  scoff  remained  to  pray. 

10.  I  did  send  to  you  for  gold  to  pay  my  legions.  —  Shakespeare. 

11.  Hast  thou  a  charm  to  stay  the  morning  star ?  — Coleridge. 

12.  Upon  the  landlord's  leaving  the  room,  I  could  not  avoid 
expressing  my  concern  for  the  stranger.  —  Goldsmith. 

13.  To  live  in  hearts  we  leave  behind 

Is  not  to  die.  —  Campbell.  ^ 

EXERCISE  170 

(i)  Write  sentences  ,  illustrating  two  different  uses  of  the 
simple  infinitive  without  to. 

(2)  Write  four  sentences  containing  infinitives  used  like 
nouns. 


2IO  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

(3)  Write  two  sentences   containing   infinitives    used  like 
adjectives. 

(4)  Write   three  sentences  containing  infinitives  used  like 
adverbs. 

CHAPTER   LXXIV 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PARTICIPLES 

Participles    modify   nouns   or   pronouns.      They   may   be 
used  — 

I.   Attributively;  as, — 

The  rising  sun  hides  the  stars. 

II.    Appositively,  usually  equivalent  to  an  implied  clause,' 

as, — 

Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  shall  rise  again. 

III.  Predicatively ;  as, — 

Here  it  runs  sparkling.     (Modifying  the  subject.) 
He  kept  us  waiting.     (Modifying  the  object.) 

IV.  Absolutely;  as, — 

The  service  having  closed^  we  left  the  church. 

EXERCISE  171 

Parse  the  participles  and  the  infinitives  in  the  followifi^ 
sentences :  — 

1.  As  we  stood  waiting  on  the  platform,  a  telegraphic  message 
was  handed  in  silence  to  my  companion.  — Holmes. 

2.  An   uprooted    tree    came   drifting   along   the    current,   and 
became  entangled  among  the  rocks. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   PARTICIPLES  211 

3.  "  Ah  ! "  cried  he,  drawing  back  in  surprise. 

4.  The  turban  folded  about  his  head 

Was  daintily  wrought  of  the  palm-leaf  braid. 

5.  At  each  corner  of  the    building  is  an  octagon  tower,  sur- 
mounted by  a  gilt  ball  and  weathercock.  — Irving. 

6.  All   the  stories  of  ghosts  and  goblins  that  he  had  heard  in 
the  afternoon,  now  came  crowding  upon  his  recollection. 

7.  I  saw  you  sitting  in  the  house,  and  I  no  longer  there. 

8.  The  snow  fell  hissing  in  the  brine. 

And  the  billows  frothed  like  yeast.  —  Longfellow. 

9.  Upon  his  advancing  toward  me  with  a  whisper,  I  expected 
to  hear  some  secret  piece  of  news.— Addison. 

10.  A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of 
silver.  —  Bible. 

11.  His  father,  being  at  the  warehouse,  did  not  yet  know  of 
the  accident.  — George  Eliot. 

12.  The  wind  having  failed  at  sunset,  the  crew  set  to  work 
with  a  will. 

13.  Here  is  a  good  place  to  test  the  quaUties  of  a  book  as  an 
out-door  companion. 

14.  There  is  not  wind  enough  to  twirl 
The  one  red  leaf,  the  last  of  its  clan. 
That  dances  as  often  as  dance  it  can, 
Hanging  so  light,  and  hanging  so  high, 

On  the  topmost  twig  that  looks  up  at  the  sky.  —  Coleridge. 

15.  The  talent  of  success  is  nothing  more  than  doing  what  you 
can  do,  well.  —  Longfellow. 

16.  To  reverse  the  rod,  to  spell  the  charm  backward,  to  break 
the  ties  which  bound  a  stupefied  people  to  the  seat  of  enchant- 
ment, was  the  noble  aim  of  Milton.  —  Macaulay. 


212  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   LXXV 

CONSTRUCTION    OF   ADVERBS 

I.     POSITION   OF  ADVERBS 

An  adverb  should  be  so  placed  that  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  its  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;    as,  — 

We  were  greatly  surprised  at  the  result. 
I  saw  only  two  trees  in  the  yard. 

An  adverb  should  not  be  placed  between  to,  the  sign  of 
an  infinitive,  and  the  infinitive  itself,  unless  this  arrange- 
ment would  add  to  the  clearness  or  the  effectiveness  of  the 
sentence. 

EXERCISE   172 

Read  the  following  sentences,  inserting  the  words  from 
the  parentheses.  Be  careful  to  place  each  word  so  that  it 
will  express  the  meaning  intended:  — 

1.  The  two  houses  were  alike  (nearly). 

2.  I  will  mention  some  of  the  best  (only). 

3.  He  promised  to  return  (faithfully). 

4.  Tell  him  to  leave  the  room  (instantly). 

5.  There  were  two  or  three  persons  present  (only). 

6.  I  desired  to  go  (really). 

7.  They  remained  three  days  (only). 

8.  We  are  directed  to  begin  the  work  (immediately). 

9.  We  came  to  look  at  the  building  (merely). 

II.     DOUBLE  NEGATIVES 

Two  negatives  should  not  be  used  in  the  same  sentence, 
unless  we  wish  to  make  an  affirmation ;   as,  — 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   PREPOSITIONS  213 

He  can  not  do  anything,  or  He  can  do  nothing  (not  He  can 
not  do  nothing). 

Sometimes  two  negatives  are  used  to  make  an  affirm- 
ative ;    as,  — 

He  is  not  2/«fitted  for  the  position. 

EXERCISE  173 

Point  out  the  negatives  in  the  following  examples,  and 
tell  which  sentences  are  affirmative  and  which  negative:  — 

1.  I  can  do  nothing  for  you. 

2.  He  will  never  consent  to  the  sale  of  the  house. 

3.  I  have  received  no  information  on  the  subject. 

4.  Neither  he  nor  any  one  else  can  do  that. 

5.  He  is  not  unhappy. 

6.  She  will  not  admit  that  she  was  wrong. 

7.  Neither  you  nor  anybody  else  can  change  the  facts. 

8.  I  am  not  unmindful  of  my  privileges. 

CHAPTER   LXXVI 

CONSTRUCTION    OF   PREPOSITIONS 
I.    PREPOSITIONS   DISCRIMINATED 

Certain  prepositions  have  distinctive  uses.     Thus  — 

At  \^  used  before  the  name  of  a  city  or  a  tow^n  when  the 
place  is  regarded  merely  as  a  point  of  locality ;  /;/,  when 
reference  is  made  to  presence  within  its  limits.  In  is  used 
before  the  names  of  countries. 

At  means  in  or  near  a  place;  to  implies  motion. 

Beside  denotes  by  the  side  of ;  besides,  in  addition  to. 


214  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Between  is  ordinarily  used  in  speaking  of  two  things  or 
classes  of  things ;  among  in  speaking  of  more  than  two. 

By  refers  to  the  agent;  with^  to  the  instrument  or 
means. 

In  denotes  presence  inside  of ;  mto^  entrance  from  the 
outside  to  the  inside. 

EXERCISE  174 

Copy  the  following  sentences,  filling  the  blanks  with  prep- 
ositions that  will  express  the  relation  intended:  — 

At,  In 

1.  The  American   poet,   Longfellow,   was   born  Portland, 

Maine. 

2.  The  travellers  landed  Liverpool. 

3.  They  are  spending  the  winter  London. 

4.  Shakespeare  is  buried  Stratford  Church Stratford- 

on- A  von. 

5.  Gold  was  discovered California  in  1848. 

At,  To 

6.  Did  you  find  him  home? 

7.  He  had  gone  New  York. 

8.  She  would  stay  home. 

9.  He  went  the  hotel. 

10.  I  saw  him  the  hotel. 

Beside,  Besides 

11.  I  sat  the  glowing  grate. 

12.  • the  house,  he  offered  us  the  use  of  the  furniture. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   PREPOSITIONS  21$ 

13.  The  lady  sat  down  the  child. 

14.  Only  three  persons  entered  the  cave  the  guide. 

15.  He  stood  the  fountain. 

16.  There  were  six  boys  Herbert. 

Between,  Among 

17.  A  small  table  stands  the  two  windows. 

18.  The  garments  were  distributed  forty  children. 

19.  He  was  a  great  favorite  all  the  children  of  the  village 

20.  The  birds  were  hopping  and  twittering  the  bushes. 

21.  The  nest  was  two  branches  of  an  apple-tree. 

By,  With 

22.  The  soil  was  prepared  the   gardener  his  spade, 

23.  Two  houses  were  struck  lightning. 

24.  Many  of  the  early  settlers  were  killed  unseen  foes. 

25.  The  bill  was  signed  this  pen. 

26.  The  wall  was  undermined  frost. 

27.  The  house  was  entered a  burglar  a  skeleton  key. 

In,  Into 

28.  The    bobolink   places   its   nest  the   midst  of  a  broad 

meadow. 

29.  There  were  five  young  birds  the  nest. 

30.  Come  the  house. 

31.  He  dropped  one  oar  the  water. 

32.  The  children  are  playing  the  park. 

33.  We  were  admitted  a  spacious  picture-gallery. 

34.  The  troops  marched the  city. 

35.  The  sweet  peas  are  coming  up  the  garden. 


2l6 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


II.   SPECIAL  PREPOSITIONS 

Certain  words  and  phrases  are  followed  by  special  prep- 
ositions ;  as,  — 


Abhorrent  to. 

Absolve  from. 

Accord  with. 

Accuse  of. 

Agree  to  (a  thing  proposed). 

Agree  with  (a  person). 

Angry  with   (a  person). 

Appropriate  to. 

Bound  y^r  or  to. 

Conform  to. 

Complain  of. 

Comply  with. 

Correspond  to  (a  thing). 

Correspond  with  (a  person). 

Deprive  of 

EXERCISE  175 

Copy  the  following  sentences^  filling  the  blanks  with  appro- 
priate prepositions :  — 

1.  The  ship  is  bound  Malta. 

2.  My  card  is  different  yours. 

3.  The  soldiers  did  not  complain  the  food. 

She  feels  the  need  rest. 


Different  from. 

Difficulty  in. 

Disappointed  in  (what  we  have). 

Dissent  from. 

Involve  in. 

Matter  with. 

Need  of. 

Opposition  to. 

Prevent  from. 

Similar  to. 

Taste  of  (what  is  actually  en- 
joyed) . 

Taste  for  (what  we  have  capac- 
ity for  enjoying). 


What  was  the  matter 


the  child? 


4- 

5- 
6. 

7- 

8.  Do  you  correspond your  brother? 

9.  How  does  this  version  accord  yours? 


The  furniture  does  not  correspond  the  house. 

I  am  greatly  disappointed  the  portrait. 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   CONJUNCTIONS  217 

10.  It  is  best  to  comply  the  regulations. 

11.  Suppose  they  will  not  agree  the  proposal. 

12.  He  had  difficulty  making  up  his  mind. 

13.  She  has  no  taste  •  music. 

14.  This  plan  is  similar  yours. 


CHAPTER    LXXVII 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   CONJUNCTIONS 
CORRELATIVES 

W/ien  conjunctions  are  used  in  pairs,  the  two  words  must 
correspond,  and  they  must  be  placed  in  corresponding  posi- 
tions in  the  sentence. 

Some  of  the  most  common  correlatives  are  both  followed 
by  and ;  either,  or ;  neither,  nor ;  though,  yet ;  whether,  or ; 
as,  as  (to  express  equality);  so,  as  (to  deny  equality). 

EXERCISE  176 

Point  out  the  correlatives  in  the  following  examples,  and 
show  that  they  join  corresponding  parts  of  the  sentence :  — 

1.  He  studied  art  both  in  France  and  in  Italy. 

2.  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your  sakes  he  became  poor. 

3.  Neither  despise  the  poor,  nor  envy  the  rich. 

4.  His  raiment  was  as  white  as  snow.  ^ 

5.  This  print  is  not  so  clear  as  that. 

6.  I  do  not  know  whether  to  go  or  to  remain. 

7.  Neither  a  borrower  nor  a  lender  be. 

8.  He  is  either  careless  or  indifferent. 


2l8  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER   LXXVIII 

VARIED    USES   OF   WORDS 
EXERCISE  177 

Give    a    reason  for   the    classificatioji    of  each    italicized 
word  in  the  following  examples :  — 

AU 

1.  All  men  are  mortal.     (Adjective.) 

2.  All  joined  in  the  song.     (Pronoun.) 

3.  My  all  is  lost.     (Noun.) 

4.  I  am  all  alone.     (Adverb.) 

As 

1.  He  wrote  as  (Adverb  of  Degree)  well  as  (Conjunctive   Ad- 
verb)  he  could. 

2.  As  he  was  ambitious,  I  slew  him.     (Conjunction.) 

3.  They  chose  him  as   a   leader.     (Conjunction  introducing  an 
appositive  word.) 

4.  We  are  such  stuff  as  dreams  are  made  of.     (Relative  Pro* 

noun.) 

Before 

1.  She  had  not  entered  this  hall  before.     (Adverb.) 

2.  He  stood  before  me.     (Preposidon.) 

3.  Look  before  you  leap.     (Conjunction.) 

But 

1.  Fools  admire,  but  men  of  sense  approve.     (Conjunction.) 

2.  Nought  is   heard  but  [except]  the   lashing  waves.     (Prepo- 
sition.) 


VARIED   USES   OF  WORDS  219 

3.  Man  wants  but  [only]  little  here  below.     (Adverb.) 

4.  There  is  no  fireside,  howsoe'er  defended, 

But  has  one  vacant  chair.     (Relative  Pronoun.) 

Else 

1.  Anybody  else  would  consent.     (Adjective.) 

2.  Where  else  could  he  go?     (Adverb.) 

3.  I  have  no  tears,  else  would  I  weep  for  thee.     (Conjunction.) 

Enough 

1.  Enough  is  as  good  as  a  feast.     (Noun.) 

2.  They  have  books  enough.     (Adjective.) 

3.  He  has  worked  long  enough.     (Adverb.) 

Except 

1.  No  one  heard  the  alarm  except  me.     (Preposition.) 

2.  I  will  not  let  thee  go,  except  thou  bless  me.     (Conjunction.) 

For 

1.  We  shall  wait /^r  the  boat.     (Preposition.) 

2.  I  called,  for  I  was  wild  with  fear.     (Conjunction.) 

However 

1.  However  busy  he  may  be,  he  will  aid  you.     (Adverb.) 

2.  These  conditions,  however,  he  could  not  accept.     (Conjunc- 
tion.) 

Like 

I.  This  box  is  like  yours.     (Preposition.) 
2„  He  ran  like  a  deer.     (Preposition.) 

3.  I  like  to  read.     (Verb.) 


220  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


Since 


1.  I  have  not  thought  of  the  matter  since.     (Adverb.) 

2.  We  have  not  heard  of  him  since  morning.     (Preposition.) 

3.  Since  the  books  are  here,  we  will  use  them.     (Conjunction.) 

So 

1.  So  ended  the  conflict.     (Adverb.) 

2.  The   library   was  closed,   so  we   returned  home.      (Conjunc- 
tion.) 

That 

1.  That  book  is  lost.     (Adjective.) 

2.  That  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble.     (Adjective  Pronoun.) 

3.  Here  is  the  man  that  gave  the  order.      (Relative  Pronoun.) 

The 

1.  The  way  was  long.     (Adjective.) 

2.  The  sooner,  the  better  [  =  by  how  much  sooner,  by  so  much 
better.     (Adverb  of  Degree.) 


CHAPTER    LXXIX 

SELECTIONS   FOR   PARSING 
EXERCISE  178 

Parse  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  exercises,  giv- 
ing a  full  explanation  of  the  different  constructions  :  — 

Whoever  has  made  a  voyage  up  the  Hudson,  must  remember  the 
Kaatskill  Mountains.  They  are  a  dismembered  branch  of  the  great 
Appalachian  fafnily^  and  are  seen  away  to  the  west  of  the  river, 


SELECTIONS    FOR   PARSING  221 

swelling  up  to  a  noble  height,  and  lording  it  over  the  surrounding 
country.  Every  change  of  season,  every  change  of  weather,  indeed, 
every  hour  of  the  day,  produces  some  change  in  the  magical  hues 
and  shapes  of  these  mountains ;  and  they  are  regarded  by  all  the 
good  wives,  far  and  near,  as  perfect  barometers.  When  the 
weather  is  fair  and  settled,  they  are  clothed  in  blue  and  purple , 
and  print  their  bold  outlines  on  the  clear  evening  sky ;  but  some- 
times, when  the  rest  of  the  landscape  is  cloudless,  they  will  gather 
a  hood  of  gray  vapors  about  their  summits,  which  in  the  last  rays 
of  the  setting  sun,  w///  glow  and  /z^/z/  ?//  ///^^  a  crown  of  glory. 
—Washington  Irving. 

EXERCISE  179 

^//  the  inhabitants  of  the  little  village  are  busy.  One  is  clear- 
ing a  spot  on  the  verge  of  the  forest  yi?^  his  homestead ;  another 
is  hewing  the  trunk  of  a  fallen  pine-tree,  in  order  to  build  himself 
a  dwelling;  a  third  is  hoeing  in  his  field  of  Indian  corn.  Here 
comes  a  huntsman  out  of  the  woods,  dragging  a  bear  which  he  has 
shot,  ^;z^  shouting  to  the  neighbors  A?  lend  him  a  ^««^.  T"/;*?^*? 
goes  a  /«^«  to  the  seashore,  with  a  spade  «;z^  a  bucket,  /^  ^z^ 
a  mess  of  clams,  which  were  a  principal  article  of  food  with  the 
first  settlers.  Scattered  here  and  /!^<?r(?  are  two  or  three  dusky 
figures,  clad  in  mantles  ^  fur,  with  ornaments  of  bone  hanging 
from  their  ears,  and  the  feathers  of  wild  birds  in  their  coal-black 
hair.  They  have  ^^//j-  of  shell-work  slung  across  their  shoulders, 
and  are  armed  with  bows  and  arrows  and  flint-headed  spears. 
These  are  an  Indian  sagamore  and  his  attendants,  who  have  come 
to  gaze  at  the  labors  of  the  white  men.  And  now  rises  a  cry 
that  a  pack  of  wolves  have  seized  a  young  calf  in  the  pasture ;  and 
every  man  snatches  up  his  gun  or  pike  and  runs  in  chase  of  the 
marauding  beasts.  —  Nathaniel  Hawthorne. 


Part  Fourth 

STRUCTURE   AND   ANALYSIS   OF   SENTENCES 
CHAPTER   LXXX 

STRUCTURE    OF   THE    SENTENCE 
I.     ELEMENTS   OF  A  SENTENCE 

A  sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  complete  thought  in 
words. 

The  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses  of  which  it  is  made  up. 

According  to  rank,  elements  are  principal,  subordinate,  or 
independent. 

The  principal  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  simple 
subject  and  the  simple  predicate^;  as, — 

The  spring  comes  slowly  .up  this  way. 

The  subordinate  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  modifiers  of 
the  principal  elements ;   as,  — 

The  doors  of  the  prison  closed  upon  him. 

He  that  leans  on  his  own  strength  leans  on  a  broken  reed, 

1  See  page  4. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SENTENCE         223 

When  the  predicate  verb  is  of  incomplete  predication,  the 
object  or  the  complement  may  be  called  a  modifier  of  the 
grammatical  predicate;  as, — 

The  sexton  rang  the  bell. 

My  mirror  is  the  mountain  spring. 

The  independent  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  words  or 
phrases  not  grammatically  related  to  the  other  words  in  the 
sentence ;   as,  — 

O  father !   I  hear  the  sound  of  guns. 
Well,  were  you  successful  in  your  search? 
To  tell  the  truth,  I  was  disappointed. 

EXERCISE  180 

Point  out  the  principal,  the  subordinate,  and  the  indepen- 
dent elements  in  the  following  examples ;  — 

1.  Hark,  there  is  a  knock  at  the  door. 

2.  Once  more  he  stept  into  the  street. 

3.  Early  next  morning  I  went  to  visit  the  grounds. 

4.  The  first  light  dry  snow  had  fallen. 

5.  Deer- tracks  were  discovered  on  the  trails  leading  to  the  river. 

6.  Many,  alas  !  had  fallen  in  battle. 

7.  To  speak  plainly,  the  plan  can  never  succeed. 

8.  At  any  rate,  we  can  make  the  attempt. 

9.  This  Uttle  brook  flowed  under  a  wooden  bridge. 

11.     STRUCTURE  OF  ELEMENTS 

When  the  subject,  the  predicate,  the  object,  or  the  com- 
plement consists  of  two  or  more  connected  terms  of 
equal  rank,   it   is  said  to  be  compound ;  as,  — 


224  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Games  and  carols  closed  the  busy  day. 
The  rainbow  comes  and  goes. 
Learn  to  labor  and  to  wait. 
Her  voice  was  low  and  sweet. 

Modifiers  may  be  simple,  compound,  or  complex. 

A  modifier  consisting  of  a  single  word  or  phrase  is  simple 

The  ship  went  slowly. 

We  spoke  not  a  word  of  sorrow. 

A  modifier  consisting  of  two  or  more  connected  words  or 
phrases  is  compound ;  as,  — 

The  ship  went  slowly  and  smoothly. 

His  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  pu7'ple  and  gold. 

A  modifier  consisting  of  a  word  or  phrase  with  modifiers 
of  its  own  is  complex ;  as,  — 

The  ship  went  very  slowly. 

Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth. 

A  series  of  adjectives  may  form  a  compound  or  a  complex 
modifier     as,  — 

1.  He  was  an  honest,  temperate,  forgiving  man. 

2.  Two  large  elm  trees  stood  near  the  house. 

In  the  first  example  the  adjectives  are  coordinate,  each 
modifying  the  same  noun.  Adjectives  used  in  this  manner 
may  be  separated  by  commas  or  joined  by  conjunctions. 

In  the  second  example  the  adjectives  form  a  complex 
modifier.  Two  modifies  the  whole  expression  large  elm 
trees,  large  modifies  elm  trees,  and  elm  modifies  trees. 


STRUCTURE  OF  THE  SENTENCE        22$ 

EXERCISE  181 

Point  out  the  compound  and  the  complex  elements  in  the 
following  examples,  and  state  their  use  in  the  sentence:  — 

1.  And  now  there  came  both  mist  and  snow. 

2.  He  was  not  to  be  corrupted  either  by  titles  or  by  money. 

3.  The  dove  found  no  rest  for  the  sole  of  her  foot. 

4.  An  alarm  bell  rang  loudly  and  hurriedly. 

5.  The  star  and  crescent  graced  his  shield. 

6.  Heart,  lungs,   and   brain   play   on  through  all  the  thousand 
nights  of  sleep. 

7.  He  is  our  help  and  our  shield. 

8.  She  heard  the  tramp  of  horses'  hoofs  and  the  rattling  of 
wheels. 

9.  This  ancient  city  was  captured  and  burned. 
10.   The  children  march  and  sing. 

III.     CLASSES  OF   SENTENCES 

(i)  Structure  of  Sentences 

According  to  their  structure,  sentences  are  simple,  com- 
plex, or  compound. 

A  sentence  that  expresses  one  thought  is  a  simple  sen- 
tence ;  as,  — 

The  march  of  the  human  mind  is  slow. 

A  sentence  consisting  of  one  principal  clause  and  one  or 
more  subordinate  clauses  is  a  complex  sentence;  as, — 

Some  murmur  when  their  sky  is  clear. 


226  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

A  sentence  made  up  of  two  or  more  independent  members 
is  a  compound  sentence  ;  as,  — 

/  listened,  but  I  could  not  hear, 

(2)  Use  of  Sentences 

According  to  their  use,  sentences  are  declarative,  impera- 
tive, interrogative,  or  exclamatory. 

A  sentence  that  states  or  declares  something  is  a  declara- 
tive sentence;  as, — 

T/ie  troops  marched  steadily  on. 

A  sentence  that  expresses  a  command  or  an  entreaty  is 
an  imperative  sentence ;  as,  — 

Make  a  proper  use  of  your  time. 

A  sentence  that  asks  a  question  is  an  interrogative  sen- 
tence ;  as,  — 

JVhen  will  the  ship  sail? 

A  sentence  that  expresses  sudden  or  strong  feeling  is  an 
exclamatory  sentence;  as, — 

What  a  beautiful  rose  this  is  / 

EXERCISE   182 

Write  (i)  a  simple  declarative  sentence;  (2)  a  simple 
imperative  sentence;  (3)  a  simple  interrogative  sentence; 
(4)  a  simple  exclamatory  sentence ;  (5)  a  compotind  declara- 
tive sentence ;  (6)  a  complex  interrogative  sentence. 


THE   SIMPLE    SENTENCE  22J 

CHAPTER   LXXXI 

THE    SIMPLE   SENTENCE 

A    simple     sentence     is    a    sentence    that    expresses    one 
thought. 

I.    THE  SUBJECT 

The  subject  of  a  simple  sentence  may  be  — 
I.   A  noun ;  as,  — 

Birds  have  many  enemies. 

II.    A  pronoun;  as, — 

We  expected  a  different  answer. 

III.    An  infinitive,  or  an  infinitive  phrase;    as,. — 

To  delay  is  dangerous. 

To  say  7iothing  is  often  better  than  to  speak. 

Saying  nothing  is  often  better  than  speaking. 

EXERCISE   183 

Write  {\)  a  simple  sentence  with  a  noun  as  subject ;  (2)  a 
simple  sefitence  with  a  pronoun  as  subject ;  (3)  a  simple 
sentence  with  an  injinitive  phrase  as  stibject. 

XL    MODIFIERS  OF  THE  SUBJECT 
The  subject  may  be  modified  by  — 
I.   An  adjective ;   as,  — 

Still  waters  run  deep. 


228  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

II.    A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case;    as, — 

Edward's  friends  were  present. 
My  opinion  is  not  changed. 

III.  An  appositive  word  or  phrase. 

I,  Faulj  have  written  it  with  mine  own  hand. 

Hope,  the  balm  of  life,  soothes  us  under  every  misfortune. 

IV.  A  prepositional  phrase,  as  adjective;    as, — 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 
V.    An  infinitive  ;  as,  — 

His  desire  to  learn  is  great. 
VI.    A  participle,  or  a  participial  phrase ;    as,  — 

Having  sung,  she  left  the  room. 
Advancing  cautiously,  he  opened  the  door. 

EXERCISE  184 

Write  sentences   illustrating  five  different  kinds  of  modi' 
fiers  of  the  subject. 

III.    THE   PREDICATE 

The  predicate  of  a  simple  sentence  may  be 

I.    A  complete  verb  — 

(i)    In  a  simple  form;   as,  The  sun  rose, 

(2)  In  a  compound  form ;   as.  The  sun  has  risen. 


THE   SIMPLE   SENTENCE  229 

II.    An  incomplete  intransitive  verb  completed  by— - 

( 1 )  A  noun ;    as,  He  was  secretary. 

(2)  A  pronoun;  as,  It  was  he. 

(3)  An  adjective;  as.  Iron  is  hard. 

(4)  An   infinitive,    or   an   infinitive    phrase;    as,   To   see   is    to 

believe.     To  see  her  is  to  love  her. 

III.    An  incomplete  transitive  verb  with  its  object  — 

(i)  A  noun;    as,  I  hear  music. 

(2)  A  pronoun;  as,  We  saw  them. 

(3)  An  infinitive,  or  an  infinitive  phrase ;  as.  She  likes  to  read. 
She  likes  to  read  stories. 

(4)  Or  objects  —  direct  and  indirect ;  as.  He  gecvQ/ohn  a  book. 

(5)  And  objective  complement ;    as.  They   made   him   treasurer. 
The  heat  turned  the  milk  sour. 

EXERCISE  185 

Write  sentences  illust7'atijzg  three  different  forms  of  predi- 
cate. 

IV.     MODIFIERS  OF  THE   PREDICATE 

The  predicate  verb  may  be  modified  by  — 
I.    An  adverb;  as, — 

The  bells  ring  merrily. 
II.    A  prepositional  phrase,  as  adverb;  as, — 
He  went  towards  the  river. 
III.    An  infinitive,  or  an  infinitive  phrase  ;  as,  — • 
They  came  to  see  the  paintings. 


230  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

IV.    An  adverbial  objective;  as, — 

She  remained  two  hours, 
V.   A  nominative  absolute  phrase ;  as,  — 

The  war  being  ended,  the  soldiers  returned. 

The  phrase,  "the  war  being  ended,'*  gives  a  reason  for  the  return  of  the 
soldiers.  It  is  an  adverbial  phrase,  being  nearly  equivalent  in  meaning  to  the 
adverbial  clause,  **  as  the  war  was  ended." 

EXERCISE  186 

Write  sentences  illustrating  five  differeiit  kinds  of  modi- 
fiers of  the  subject. 

V.    ANALYSIS  OF  SIMPLE  SENTENCES 
To  analyze  a  simple  sentence  — 

(i)  Tell  the  kind  of  sentence. 

(2)  Name  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

(3)  Tell  what  the  subject  consists  of. 

(4)  Tell  what  the  predicate  consists  of. 

Example     I.  —  This    old    ship    had    been    laden    with 

immense   wealth. 

Oral  Analysis 

1.  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The  complete  subject  is  this  old  ship;  the  complete  predi- 
cate, had  been  laden  with  immense  wealth. 

3.  The  subject  consists  of  the  noun  ship,  with  the  adjectives 
this  and  old,  of  which  old  modifies  ship,  and  this  modifies  old 
ship. 

4.  The  predicate  consists  of  the  verb  had  been  laden,  modified 
by  the  adverbial  phrase  with  immense  wealth. 


THE   SIMPLE    SENTENCE 
Written  Analysis.  —  Simple  Declarative  Sentence 


231 


Complete 
Subject 

This  old  ship 

Simple 
.  Subject 
Modifiers 

Complete 
Predicate 

Noun  :  ship 
Adjectives  :  this,  old 

had  been  laden  with  immense  wealth 

Simple 
Predicate 
Modifier 

Verb  ;  had  been  laden 

Adverbial  phrase  :  with  immense  wealth 

Example  II. — The  prospect  of  success  seemed  small. 

Oral  Analysis.  —  i.   This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The  complete  subject  is  the  prospect  of  success ;  the  complete 
predicate,  seemed  small. 

3.  The   subject  consists  of  the  noun  prospect,   modified  by  the 
adjective  the  and  by  the  adjective  phrase  of  success. 

4.  The  predicate  consists  of  the  verb  seemed,  completed  by  the 
adjective  small. 


Complete 
Subject 

The  prospect  of  success 

Simple 

Subject 

Modifiers 

Noun:  prospect 

Adjective:  the 

Adjective  phrase  :  of  success 

Complete 
Predicate 

seemed  small 

Simple 

Predicate 

Complement 

Verb:  seemed  {incomplete') 
Adjective:  small 

232 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


Example  III.  —  Having  obtained  the  desired  information, 

he  left  the  room. 

Oral  Analysis 

1.  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The  complete  subject  is  he  having  obtained  the  desired  infor- 
mation ;  the  complete  predicate,  left  the  room. 

3.  The  subject  consists  of  the  pronoun  he,  modified  by  the  parti- 
cipial phrase,  having  obtained  the  desired  informatiofi.    - 

4.  The  predicate  consists  of  the  verb  left,  completed  by  the  ob- 
ject rootn,  which  is  modified  by  the. 

Written  Analysis 
Simple  Declarative  Sentence 


Complete 
Subject 

he,  having  obtained  the  desired  information 

Simple 
Subject 

Modifier 

Pronoun  :  he 

Adjective  phrase  :  having  obtained  the  desired  information 

Complete 
Predicate 

left  the  room 

Simple 
Predicate 

Object 

Verb:  left  {incomplete) 
Noun  with  modifier :  the  room 

Example  IV.  —  It  is  useless  to  deny  the  fact. 

Oral  Analysis 

1.  This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The  grammatical  subject  is  it,  which  stands  for  the  logical  sub- 
ject, to  deny  the  fact;  the  predicate,  is  useless. 


THE   SIMPLE   SENTENCE 


233 


3.  The   logical  subject  is   the   infinitive  phrase,  to  deny  the  fact, 
placed  after  the  verb. 

4.  The   predicate   consists    of  the   verb    is,  completed   by  the 
adjective  useless. 

Written  Analysis 

Simple  Declarative  Sentence 


Logical 
Subject 

To  deny  the  fact 

Gram. 
Subject 

Pronoun  :  it 

Complete 
Predicate 

is  useless 

Simple 
Predicate 

Complement 

Verb:  is  (incomplete) 
Adjective:  useless 

EXERCISE   187 

Analyze  the  following  sentences^  according  to  the  models 
given  on  pages  230  and  231  :  — 

1 .  He  reaps  the  bearded  grain  at  a  breath. 

2.  Amidst  the  storm  they  sang. 

3.  Choose  the  timbers  with  greatest  care. 

4.  A  sycamore  grew  by  the  door. 

5.  The  clock  stood  in  the  comer  behind  her. 

6.  I  hear  the  sound  of  distant  footsteps. 

7.  The  key  to  the  drawer  is  lost. 

8.  Charity  covereth  a  multitude  of  sins. 

9.  They  have  forgotten  the  language  of  their  ancestors. 
10.  They  glided  calmly  down  the  tranquil  stream. 


234  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

11.  The  sad  and  solemn  night 

Hath  yet  her  multitude  of  cheerful  fires. 

12.  The  vine  still  clings  to  the  mouldering  wall. 

13.  He  reads  for  information. 

14.  She  ran  quickly  to  the  spot. 

EXERCISE    188 

Analyze  the  following  sentences.     State   clearly  the   con 
struction  of  each  participial  phrase :  — 

1.  The  sun  having  risen,  we  began  our  journey. 

2.  Peace  being  concluded,  I  turned  my  thoughts  again  to  the 
affairs  of  the  school. 

3.  Dinner  being  over,  the  guests  left  the  room. 

4.  Looking  upward,  they  beheld  the  cause  of  the  trouble. 

5.  Having  obtained  the  information,  he  ceased  questioning. 

6.  They  saw  a  small  vessel,  approaching  the  shore. 

7.  All  last  night  we  watched  the  beacons 

Blazing  on  the  hills  afar. 

8.  With  every  puff  of  the  wind  the  fire  leaped  upward  from  the 
hearth,  laughing  and  rejoicing  at  the  shrieks  of  the  wintry  storm. 

9.  In  the  corner  of  the  room  stands  his  gold-headed  cane,  made 
of  a  beautifully  polished  West  India  wood. 

10.   Having  lost  the  confidence  of  the  people,  he  was  compelled  to 

resign  his  office. 

EXERCISE   189 

Analyze  the  following  sentences.     Be  careful  to  give  the 
construction  of  each  infinitive  phrase :  — 

1.  The  best  course  is  to  confess  the  fault. 

2.  It  is  a  noble  thing  to  reward  evil  with  good. 

3.  It  is  easy  to  decide  the  matter. 

4.  Strive  to  be  usefully  employed. 


THE  SIMPLE   SENTENCE  23$ 

5.  They  are  about  to  leave  the  city. 

6.  Study  to  acquire  a  habit  of  accurate  expression. 

7.  We  should  rejoice  to  hear  of  the  prosperity  of  others. 

8.  It  is  useless  to  deny  the  fact. 

9.  It  is  very  difficult  to  lay  down  rules  of  conduct  for  others. 
10.  It  would  be  absurd  to  make  another  attempt. 

Ti.   The    proper  business   of  friendship   is    to   inspire    life   and 
courage. 

12.  One    of  the    hardest   things   in   this   world    is    to    see    the 
difference  between  real  dangers  and  imaginary  ones. 

13.  They  were  content  to  consult  libraries. 

EXERCISE  190 

Analyze  the  following  sentences :  — 

1.  The   decision  of  the  judge   increased   the  irritation  of   the 
people. 

2.  The  best  honey  is   the  product  of  the  milder  parts  of  the 
temperate  zone.— John  Burroughs. 

3.  The   captain's   share  of  the   treasure  was   enough    to  make 
him  comfortable  for  the  rest  of  his  days.  —  Hawthorne. 

4.  It  is  never  too  late  to  give  up  our  prejudices. 

5.  Every  man  is  a  missionary  for  good  or  for  evil. 

6.  We  are  equally  served  by  receiving  and  by  imparting. 

7.  A   low,    white-washed    room,    with    a    stone    floor,    carefully 
scrubbed,  served  for  parlor,  kitchen,  and  hall.  — Irving. 

8.  The  turtle,  sunning  itself  upon  a  rock,  slid    suddenly   into 
the  water  with  a  plunge. 

9.  It  is  the  glory  of  a  man  to  pass  by  an  offence. 

10.  The    great  secret  of  a  good   style  is  to  have  proper  words 
in  proper  places.  — E.  P.  Whipple. 

11.  A  city  without  mocking-birds  is  only  half  Southern. 


236  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

12.  Form  the  habit  of  looking  for  interesting  facts  in  the  every- 
day life  about  you. 

13.  How  strangely  the  past  is  peeping  over  the  shoulders  of 
the  present ! 

14.  The  words  of  mercy  were  upon  his  lips. 

15.  Chimney  swallows  have  almost  abandoned  hollow  trees  for 
their  nesting-places,  even  in  our  most  thickly  wooded  areas, 
preferring  our  chimneys. 

16.  Early  next  morning  I  went  to  visit  the  grounds. 

17.  Having  been  accustomed  to  the  control  of  large  bodies  of 
men,  I  had  not  much  difficulty  in  comprehending  the  situation. 

18.  Hundreds  of  other  carriages,  crowded  with  their  thousands 
of  men,  were  hastening  to  the  great  city. 

19.  The  Stamp  Act  was  a  direct  tax  laid  upon  the  whole 
American  people  by  Parliament. 

20.  I  see  everywhere  the  gardens,  the  vineyards,  the  orchards, 
with   the   various   greens    of  the   olive,    the   fig,    and   the   orange. 

21.  A  truly  great  man  borrows  no  lustre  from  splendid  ancestry. 

22.  Success  being  hopeless,  preparations  were  made  for  a  retreat. 

23.  To  bear  is  to  conquer  our  fate. 

CHAPTER   LXXXII 

THE   COMPLEX   SENTENCE 

A  complex  senfence  is  a  sentence  consisting  of  one  princi- 
pal clause  and  of  one  or  more  subordinate  clauses ;  as,  — 

He  who  would  search  for  pearls  must  dive  below. 

The  principal  clause  expresses  the  leading  or  principal 
thought  of  a  sentence,  but  it  does  not  express  the  complete 
thought. 


THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE  237 

The  subordinate  clause  performs  the  office  of  a  noun,  an 
adjective,  or  an  adverb,  and  is  usually  introduced  by  a  con- 
junction or  by  a  relative  pronoun. 


I.    NOUN   CLAUSES 

A  clause  that  performs  the  oflBice  of  a  noun  is  a  noun  clause. 
A  noun  clause  may  be  used  — 

(i)   As  the  subject  of  a  verb;  as, — 

Thai  you  have  wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this. 

(2)  As  a  predicate  nominative;  as, — 

The  result  was  that  the  treaty  was  signed, 

(3)  As  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb;  as, — 

He  knows  who  wrote  the  letter, 

(4)  As  the  logical  subject,  defining  a  foregoing  introduc- 
tory or  grammatical  subject;  as, — 

//  was  a  fortunate  thing  that  we  met  him, 

(5)  As  the  object  of  a  preposition ;  as,  — 

The  leader  encouraged  his  men  by  what  he  said  and  by  what 
he  did. 

Noun    clauses    are    introduced   by   the  conjunctions   that 
and  whether y  and  by  the  words  how^  when,  who,  what,  etc. 


238  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

The  conjunction   that  is   often   omitted   when   the   noun 
clause  follows  the  principal  verb;  as, — 

I  hope  \jhai\  he  will  succeed. 

EXERCISE   191 

In  the  following  sentences^  point  out  the  noun  clauses  tised 
as  subjects :  — 

1.  What  it  cost  is  of  slight  importance. 

2.  "Know  thyself"  is  a  comprehensive  maxim. 

3.  What  was  said  was  misunderstood. 

4.  When  he  will  arrive  is  not  yet  known. 

5.  That  he  should  succeed  is  not  surprising. 

6.  Whoever  looks  may  find  the  spot. 

7.  That  you  aave  wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this. 

8.  How  he  made  his  escape  is  a  mystery. 

9.  What  is  done  cannot  be  undone. 

10.  Whoever  comes  will  be  welcome. 

11.  What  we  achieve  depends  less  on  the  amount  of  time  we 
possess,  than  on  the  use  we  make  of  our  time. 

EXERCISE  192 

In  the  following  sentences,  find  the  noun  clauses  used  as 
predicate  nominatives,  and  tell  to  what  each  refers :  — 

1.  Children  are  what  the  mothers  are. 

2.  Be  what  nature  intended  you  for,  and  you  will  succeed. 

3.  The  result  was  that  the  troops  were  defeated. 

4.  Things  are  not  what  they  seem. 

5.  Our  hope  is  that  the  plan  will  be  accepted. 

6.  The  fact  is  that  he  is  dissatisfied  with  the  work. 


THE   COMPLEX    SENTENCE  239 

7.  The  great  and  decisive  test  of  genius  is  that  it  calls  forth 
power  in  the  souls  of  others. 

8.  His  only  chance  of  escape  was  that  he  should  go  overboard 
in  the  night. 

EXERCISE  193 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  noun  clauses  nsed 
as  objects,  and  tell  of  what  they  are  objects :  — 

1.  No  man  can  lose  what  he  never  had. 

2.  I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take. 

3.  What  we  do  not  understand,  we  do  not  possess. 

4.  I  learned  that  he  was  a  universal  favorite  in  the  village. 

5.  He  declared  that  he  was  the  sole  survivor. 

6.  See  that  you  can  untie  what  you  tie. 

7.  We  do  not  know  how  the  matter  will  be  decided. 

8.  I  did  not  understand  what  was  said. 

9.  His  whole  mind  was  occupied  by  what  he  had  heard. 

10.  He  could  describe  with  great  vividness,  brevity,  and  force, 
what  had  happened  in  the  past,  what  actually  existed,  or  what  the 
future  promised. 

11.  No  one  knows  who  sent  the  message. 

12.  He  declared  that  he  was  the  sole  survivor. 

13.  What  we  seek,  we  shall  find. 

14.  Nobody  could  expect  that  we  should  be  satisfied  with  these 
arrangements. 

EXERCISE  194 

In  the  following  sentences^  point  out  the  noun  clauses  used 
as  logical  subjects:  — 

1.  It  is  good  for  a  man  that  he  bear  the  yoke  in  his  youth. 

2.  It  has  been  truly  said  that   he  who   sets   one   great   truth 
afloat  in  the  world  serves  his  generation. 


240  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

3.  It  is  only  by  degrees  that  the  great  body  of  mankind  can 
be  led  into  new  practices. 

4.  It  is  seldom  that  we  learn  how  great  a  man  is  until  he  dies. 

5.  It  was  with  extreme  difficulty  that  he  made  his  way  towards 
the  light. 

6.  It  is  not  enough  to  do  the  right  thing,  but  we  must  do  it 
in  the  right  way,  and  at  the  right  time. 

7.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  discover  the  exact  spot  where  a 
sunken  vessel  Hes. 

8.  It  would  be  tedious  to  detail  minutely  the  rest  of  this  story. 

II.     ADJECTIVE  CLAUSES 

A  clause  that  performs  the  office  of  an  adjective  is  an 
adjective  clause;  as, — 

Sweet  are  the  thoughts  that  savor  of  content. 

I  remember,  I  remember 

The  house  where  I  was  born. 

Adjective  clauses  are  introduced  by  the  relative  pro- 
nouns whoy  which,  that,  and  by  the  adverbs  wheUy  wherey 
whenccy  etc. 

EXERCISE   195 

Point  out  the  adjective  clauses  in  the  following  sentenceSy 
and  tell  what  each  modifies :  — 

1.  He  that  is  giddy  thinks  the  world  turns  round. 

2.  In  the  evening  we  reached  a  village  where  I  had  deter- 
mined to  pass  the  night. 

3.  It  was  the  time  when  lilies  blow. 

4.  Here  is  a  barrier  that  cannot  be  passed. 


THE  COMPLEX   SENTENCE  M^ 

5.  I  had  a  dream  which  was  not  all  a  dream. 

6.  He  serves  all  who  dares  be  true. 

7.  Nature  never  did  betray  the  heart  that  loved  her. 

8.  One   by  one  we   miss  the  voices  which  we  loved  so  well  to 
hear. 

III.     ADVERBIAL   CLAUSES 

A  clause   that   performs   the   office   of    an   adverb   is    an 
adverb /a/  clause. 

An  adverbial  clause  may  denote  — 

(i)  Time,    introduced    by   after,    before,    since,   till,   zvhen, 
while;  as, — 

Let  us  live  while  we  live. 

(2)  Place,  introduced  by  zvkere,  whence,  whither;  as,  — 

I  shall  remain  where  I  am. 

(3)  Manner,  introduced  by  as;  as, — 

He  acts  as  no  wise  man  would  act. 

(4)  Degree,  introduced  by  than,  as ;  as,  — - 

My  days  are  swifter  than  a  weave^-'s  shuttle  [?>]. 
Enough  is  as  good  as  a  feast  [w] . 

(5)  Cause  or  reason,  introduced  by  because,  for,  since,  as, 
that ;  as,  — 

Freely  we  serve,  because  we  freely  love. 
Since  you  desire  it,  I  will  remain. 

(6)  Purpose,  introduced  by  that,  lest;  as,  — 

Open  the  door  that  they  may  enter. 
Take  heed  lest  ye  fall. 


242  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

(7)  Result   or   consequence,    introduced   by  so   that,   that: 
as, — 

A  storm  arose,  so  that  ive  could  not  leave  the  harbor. 
What  has  he  done,  that  he  should  be  dismissed? 

(8)  Condition,  introduced  by  if,  unless,  except,  but ;  as,  — 

I  will  go  if  you  are  ready. 

The  house  will  be  sold  unless  the  money  is  paid. 
Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish. 
It  never  rains  but  it  pours. 

(9)  Concession,  introduced  by  though,  although ;  as,  — 

Though  he  woi'ks  hard,  he  does  not  succeed. 
Although  he  spoke,  he  said  nothing. 

EXERCISE  196 

Point   out  the  adverbial  clauses   of  ti7ne,  and  tell  what 
each  modifies :  — 

1.  As    the    last   sentence   fell   from    the   lips   of   the    reader,   a 
loud  shout  went  up. 

2.  While  she  was  yet  speaking,  the  sun  rose  in  all  its  splendor. 

3.  She  was  a  phantom  of  delight 

When  first  she  gleamed  upon  my  sight. 

4.  When  his  host  had  left  the  room,  Dolph  remained  for  some 
time  lost  in  thought. 

5.  The  sea-birds  screamed  as  they  wheeled  around. 

6.  The  sun  had  set  before  the  conflict  ended. 

7.  Write  to  us  as  soon  as  you  reach  your  destination. 

8.  Fear  not,  while  acting  justly. 


THE   COMPLEX   SENTENCE  243 

9.   I  have  not  visited  the  city  since  you  were  here. 

10.  Small  service  is  true  service  while  it  lasts. 

1 1 .  Days  brightly  came  and  calmly  went, 
While  yet  he  was  our  guest. 

EXERCISE  197 

Point  out  the  adverbial  clauses  of  place,  and  tell  what 
each  modifies:  — 

1.  Where  your  treasure  is,  there  will  your  heart  be  also. 

2.  Whither  I  go,  ye  cannot  come. 

3.  Where  thoughts  kindle,  words  spontaneously  flow. 

4.  The  clouds  rolled  away  to  the  east,  where  they  lay  piled  in 
feathery  masses,  tinted  with  the  last  rosy  rays  of  the  sun. 

5.  Where  the  heart  is  well  guarded,  temptations  cannot  enter. 

6.  Cover  the  thousands  that  sleep  far  away ; 

Sleep  where  their  friends  cannot  find  them  to-day. 

EXERCISE  198 

Point  out  the  adverbial  clauses  of  manner,  and  tell  what 
each  modifies:  — 

1.  As  the  tree  falls,  so  it  must  lie. 

2.  He  died  as  he  lived. 

3.  Not  as  the  conqueror  comes, 
They,  the  true-hearted,  came. 

4.  Speak  as  you  think. 

5.  Forgive  us  our  debts,  as  we  forgive  our  debtors. 

6.  We  all  do  fade  as  a  leaf. 

7.  It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  rain  from  heaven. 


244  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE   199 

Find  the  adverbial  clauses  of  degree,  and  tell  zvhat  each 
modifies :  — 

1.  Corruption  wins  not  more  than  honesty. 

2.  No  sooner  did  this  idea  enter  his  head,  than  it  carried  con- 
viction with  it. 

3.  The  nearer  the  dawn,  the  darker  the  night. 

4.  The  boy  ran  so  fast  that  I  could  not  overtake  him. 

5.  The  result  was  better  than  I  expected. 

6.  So  far  as  my  own  observation  goes,  the  farther  one  penetrates 
the  sombre  solitudes  of  the  woods,  the  more  seldom  does  one  hear 
the  voice  of  any  singing  bird. 

7.  The  more  time  he  loses,  the  poorer  he  considers  himself. 

8.  The  line  is  so  long  that  it  will  reach  the  bottom. 

EXERCISE  200 

Point  out  the  adverbial  clauses  of  cause  or  reason,  and 
tell  how  they  are  joined  to  the  principal  clauses  :  — 

1.  We  love  him  because  he  first  loved  us. 

2.  Since  they  are  here,  we  must  receive  them. 

3.  Freely  we  serve,  because  we  freely  love. 

4.  They  deserved  respect ;  for  they  were  good  men  as  well  as 
brave. 

5.  Since  you  are  acquainted  with  the  facts,  you  can  judge  for 
yourself. 

6.  As  he  persisted  in  refusing  help,  I  left  him  alone. 

7.  Our  bugles  sang  truce  ;  for  the  night-cloud  had  lowered. 

8.  As  our  proposal  was  rejected,  we  have  nothing  further  to  say. 


THE   COMPLEX   SENTENCE  245 

EXERCISE   201 
Point  out  the  adverbial  clauses  of  purpose  and  of  result, 

and  tell  what  each  modifies :  — 

1.  We  sow  that  we  may  reap. 

2.  Beware  lest  you  fall. 

3.  He  labored  earnestly  that  abuses  might  be  reformed. 

4.  I  repeated  the  order  that  there  might  be  no  mistake. 

5.  Let  my  people  go,  that  they  may  serve  me. 

6.  Seek  to  be  so  useful,  that  the  world  will  miss  you  when  away. 

7.  The  day  was  so  still  that  carts  could  be  heard  rumbling  a 
mile  away. 

8.  Love  not  sleep  lest  thou  come  to  poverty. 

EXERCISE   202 

Point  out  the  adverbial  clauses  of  condition^  and  tell  hoiv 
they  are  joined  to  the  principal  clauses  :  — 

1.  Speak  clearly  if  you  speak  at  all ; 
Carve  every  word  before  you  let  it  fall. 

2.  The  bill  will  not  become  a  law,  unless  the  Governor  signs  it. 

3.  If  he    had    feared   difficulties,   he  would   not  have  died  an 
acknowledged  leader  of  men^ 

4.  Had  you  not  helped  me,  I  should  have  failed. 

5.  If  we  were  base   enough  to  desire  it,  it  is  now  too  late  to 
retire  from  the  contest. 

6.  If  it  bear  the  test,  it  will  be  accepted. 

7.  If  I    had   not   been   acquainted  with    the   facts,  this  would 
have  led  me  into  a  great  error. 

8.  Had  he  been  absent,  the  motion  would  have  been  carried. 

9.  This  is  strange  if  it  be  true. 

10.   If  we  fail,  it  can  be  no  worse  for  us. 


246  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  203 

Point  out  the  adverbial  clauses  of  concession ^  and  tell 

what  each  modifies :  — 

1.  Though  it  was  morning,  the  sun  did  not  shine, 

2.  His  knowledge,  though  not  always  accurate,  was  of  immense 
extent. 

3.  The  good  which  men  do  is  not  lost,  though  it  is  often  dis- 
regarded. 

4.  He  remained  in  school,  though  he  was  not  able  to  work. 

5.  Although    I    had    so    many    interruptions,    I    completed    the 
work  in  time. 

6.  Though    the    position    of   affairs    has    changed,  there   is    still 
danger  to  be  apprehended. 

7.  Though  he  were  present,  it  would  make  no  difference. 

8.  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  him. 

IV.    ANALYSIS  OF  COMPLEX   SENTENCES 
To  analyze  a  complex  se7ttence  — 

(i)  Tell  the  kind  of  sentence. 

(2)  Name  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of  the  sentence. 

(3)  Tell  what  the  subject  consists  of. 

(4)  Tell  what  the  predicate  consists  of. 

(5)  Analyze  the  subordinate  clause  or  clauses. 

Example    I.  —  That    man    is    formed    for    social    life    is 
acknowledged  by  all. 

Oral  Analysis 

1.  This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The    subject    is    the   noun   clause,   that  man   is  formed  fa? 
social  life;   the  predicate,  is  acknowledged  by  all. 


THE   COMPLEX    SENTENCE 


247 


3.  The  predicate  consists  of  the  verb  is  acknowledged,  modified 
by  the  adverbial  phrase  dy  all. 

4.  The    subordinate    clause    is    introduced    by   the    conjunction 
that. 

5.  The    subject   of  the   subordinate   clause   is   the   noun   man, 
the  predicate,  is  formed  for  social  life. 

6.  The  predicate  of  the  clause  consists  of  the  verb  is  formed, 
modified  by  the  adverbial  phrase  for  social  life. 


Written  Analysis 
Complex  Declarative  Sentence 


Complete 
Subject 

That  man  is  formed  for  social  life 

Simple 
Subject 

Noun  clause :  that  man  is  formed  for  social  life 

Complete 
Predicate 

is  acknowledged  by  all 

Simple 
Predicate 

Modifier 

Verb :  is  acknowledged 
Adverbial  phrase  :  by  all 

Subordinate  Clause 
Introduced  by  the  conjunction  that 

Subject 

Noun :  man 

Complete 
Predicate 

is  formed  for  social  life 

Simple 
Predicate 

Modifier 

Verb  :  is  formed 

Adverbial  phrase  :  for  social  life 

248  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Example  II. — The  fact  that  he  was  present  is  sufficient 

Oral  Analysis 

1.  This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence. 

2.  The  subject  is  the  fact  that  he  was  present;    the  predicate, 
ts  sufficient. 

3.  The  subject  consists  of  the  noun  fact,  modified  by  the  ad- 
jective the,  and  by  the  appositive  noun  clause  that  he  was  present. 

4.  The    predicate   consists   of  the   verb   is,   completed    by   the 
adjective  sufficient. 

5.  The   subordinate   clause   is    introduced   by    the    conjunction 
that. 

6.  The  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause  is  he ;   the  predicate, 
uas  present. 

7.  The  predicate  of  the  clause  consists  of  the  verb  was,  com- 
pleted by  the  adjective  present. 

Written  Analysis 
Complex  Declarative  Sentence 


Complete 
Subject 

The  fact  that  he  was  present 

Simple 
Subject 

Modifiers 

Noun :  fact 

Adjective  :  the 

Appositive  noun  clause  :  that  he  was  present 

Complete 
Predicate 

is  sufficient 

Simple 
Predicate 

Complement 

Verb:  is  {incomplete^ 
Adjective  :  sufficient 

THE  COMPLEX   SENTENCE 

Subordinate  Clause 
Introduced  by  the  conjunction  that 


249 


Subject 

Pronoun  /he 

Complete 
Predicate 

was  present 

Simple 
Predicate 

Complement 

Verb:  was  {incomplete') 
Adjective:  present 

Example  III. — The  people  believed  in  him,  because  he 
was  honest  and  true. 


Written  Analysis 
Complex  Declarative  Sentence 


Complete 
Subject 

The  people 

Simple 
Subject 

Modifier 

Noun :  people 
Adjective:  the 

Complete 
Predicate 

believed  in  him,  because  he  was  honest  and  true 

Simple 
Predicate 

Modifiers 

Verb:  believed 

Adverbial  phrase  :  in  him 

Adverbial  clause  of  reason  :  because  he  was  honest  and 
true 

250  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Subordinate  Clause 
Connected  to  the  verb  believed  by  the  conjunction  because 


Subject 

Pronoun  :  he 

Logical 
Predicate 

was  honest  and  true 

Gram. 
Predicate 

Complement 

Verb  :  was  {incomplete^ 

Adjectives  connected  by  a7td :  honest  and  true 

EXERCISE  204 

Analyze  the  sentences  in  tJie  following  exercises :  — 

1.  As  we  approached  the  house,  we  heard  the  sound  of  music. 

2.  Such  a  fortnight  in  the  woods  as  I  have  been  Hghtly  sketch- 
ing, will  bring  to  hini  who  rightly  uses  it  a  rich  return. 

3.  If  we   seek   to   acquire  the  style  of  another,  we  renounce 
the  individual  style  which  we  might  have  acquired. 

4.  "Good  speed!"  cried  the  watch,  as  the  gate-bolts  undrew. 

5.  So  thick  were  the  fluttering  snowflakes,  that  even  the  trees 
were  hidden  by  them  the  greater  part  of  the  time. 

6.  I  now  found  myself  among  noble  avenues  of  oaks  and  elms, 
whose  vast  size  bespoke  the  growth  of  centuries. 

7.  Nothing  is  so  dangerous  as  pride. 

8.  We  are  happy  now  because  God  wills  it.  —  Lowelu 

9.  A   great   black    cloud  had   been  gathering   in   the   sky   for 
some  time  past,  although  it  had  not  yet  overspread  the  sun. 

10.  Here  I  sit  among  my  descendants,  in  my  old  arm-chair, 
and  immemorial  comer,  while  the  firelight  throws  an  appropriate 
glory  round  my  venerable  frame.  — Hawthorne. 


THE  COMPLEX   SENTENCE  251 

11.  He  who  sets  a  great  example  is  great.— Victor  Hugo. 

12.  I  saw  from  the  beach,  when  the  morning  was  shining, 
A  bark  o'er  the  waters  move  gloriously  on.— moore. 

13.  The  song  that  moves  a  Nation's  heart 
Is  in  itself  a  deed.— Tennyson. 

14.  As  I  crossed  the  bridge  over  the  Avon  on  my  return,  I 
paused  to  contemplate  the  distant  church  in  which  the  poet  lies 
buried.  —  Irving. 

15.  We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident:  that  all  men  are 
created  equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  cer- 
tain unalienable  rights ;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness. 

16.  We  can  almost  fancy  that  we  are  visiting  him  [Milton]  in 
his  small  lodging;  that  we  see  him  sitting  at  the  old  organ  beneath 
the  faded  green  hangings ;  that  we  can  catch  the  quick  twinkle 
of  his  eyes,  rolHng  in  vain  to  find  the  day  ;  that  we  are  reading 
in  the  lines  of  his  noble  countenance  the  proud  and  mournful 
history  of  his  glory  and  his  affliction.  — Macaulay. 

17.  When  the  woodpecker  is  searching  for  food,  or  laying  siege 
to  some  hidden  grub,  the  sound  of  his  hammer  is  dead  or  muffled, 
and  is  heard  but  a  few  yards.  It  is  only  upon  dry,  seasoned 
timber,  freed  of  its  bark,  that  he  beats  his  reveille  to  spring  and 
woos  his  mate. —John  burroughs. 

18.  We  are  nearer  heaven  when  we  listen  to  the  birds  than 
when  we  quarrel  with  our  fellow-men. — Henry  Van  Dyke. 

19.  And  the  night  shall  be  filled,  with  music. 

And  the  cares,  that  infest  the  day. 
Shall  fold  their  tents,  like  the  Arabs, 

And  as  silently  steal  away.  —  Longfellow. 


252  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER  LXXXIII 

THE   COMPOUND    SENTENCE 

A  compound  sentence  is  a  sentence  made  up  of  two  or  more 
independent  members;  as, — 

The  walls  are  high,  and  the  sho7'es  are  steep. 

Each  member  of  a  compound  sentence,  by  itself,  forms  a 
complete  sentence,  which  may  be  simple  or  complex;  as, — 

The  Mayor  was  dumb  and  the   Council  stood 
As  if  they  were  changed  into  blocks  of  wood. 

1.  The  Mayor  was  dumb.     (Simple  sentence.) 

2.  The  Council  stood  as  if  they  were  changed  into  blocks  of 
wood.     (Complex  sentence.) 

The  connective  between  the  members  may  be  omitted  ; 
as,  "  The  night  is  chill,  the  cloud  is  gray ;''  but  the  relation 
between  the  members  should  be  stated  in  the  analysis. 

To  analyze  a  compound  sentence  — 

(i)   Tell  the  kind  of  sentence. 

(2)  Name  the  different  members,  and  tell  how  they  are 
connected. 

(3)  Analyze  in  order  the  different  members  of  the  sentence. 

Example. — The  merchants  shut  up  their  warehouses, 
and  the  laboring  men  stood  idle  about  the  wharves. 

Oral  Analysis 

I.  This  is  a  compound  declarative  sentence,  consisting  of  two 
simple  members  connected  by  the  copulative  conjunction  and. 


THE  COMPOUND   SENTENCE 


253 


2.  The  subject  of  the  first  member  is  the  merchants ;  the  predi- 
cate, shut  up  their  warehouses.  The  subject  consists  of  the  noun 
merchants,  modified  by  the  adjective  the.  The  predicate  consists 
of  the  verb  shut,  modified  by  the  adverb  up,  and  completed  by 
the  object  warehouses.  The  object  is  modified  by  the  possessive 
pronoun  their. 

3.  The  subject  of  the  second  member  is  the  laboring  men;  the 
predicate,  stood  idle  about  the  wha^ues.  The  subject  consists  ot 
the  noun  7nen,  with  the  adjectives  the  and  laboring,  of  which 
laboring  modifies  men,  and  the  modifies  laboring  men.  The  predi- 
cate consists  of  the  verb  stood,  completed  by  the  adjective  idle, 
and  modified  by  the  adverbial  phrase  about  the  wharves. 


Written  Analysis 

Compound  Declarative  Sentence 

Two  members  connected  by  the  conjunction  and 


FIRST  MEMBER 


Complete 
Subject 

The  merchants 

Simple 
Subject 

Modifier 

Noun  :  merchants 
Adjective:  the 

Complete 
Predicate 

shut  up  their  warehouses 

Simple 
Predicate 

Mod  of  Verb 

Object 

Mod.  of  Object 

Verb:  shut  {incomplete^ 
Adverb:  up 
Noun :  warehouses 
Possessive  pronoun  :  their 

254 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

SECOND  MEMBER 


Complete 
Subject 

the  laboring  men 

Simple 
Subject 

Modifiers 

Noun :  men 

Adjectives  :  the,  laboring 

Complete 
Predicate 

stood  idle  about  the  wharves 

Simple 
Predicate 

Complement 

Modifier 

Verb:  stood  (incomplete) 

Adjective:  idle 

Adverbial  phrase :  about  the  wharves 

EXERCISE  205 

Analyze  the  sentences  in  the  followifig  exercises:  — 

1 .  Every  day  is  a  little  life ;  and  our  whole  life  is  but  a  day 
repeated. 

2.  The  harvest  truly  is  plenteous,  but  the  laborers  are  few. 

3.  They  toil  not,  neither  do  they  spin. 

4.  It  is  one  thing  to  be  well  informed ;  it  is  another  to 
be  wise. 

5.  The  ravine  was  full  of  sand  now,  but  it  had  once  been  full 
of  water. 

6.  He  touched  his  harp,  and  nations  heard,  entranced. 

7.  The  moon  is  up,  and  yet  it  is  not  night. 

8.  They  had  played  together  in  infancy ;  they  had  worked  to- 
gether in  manhood  ;  they  were  now  tottering  about,  and  gossiping 
away  the  evening  of  life  ;  and  in  a  short  time  they  will  probably 
be  buried  together  in  the  neighboring  churchyard.  — Irving. 


SELECTIONS   FOR   ANALYSIS  255 

9.  Now  stir  the  fire,  and  close  the  shutters  fast.  — Cowper. 

10.  Lay  down  the  axe ;  fling  by  the  spade ; 
Leave  in  its  track  the  toiling  plough.— Bryant. 

11.  But  what  chiefly  characterized  the  colonists  of  Merry  Mount 
was  their  veneration  for  the  Maypole.  It  has  made  their  true  his- 
tory a  poet's  tale.  Spring  decked  the  hallowed  emblem  with  young 
blossoms  and  fresh  green  boughs;  Summer  brought  roses  of  the 
deepest  blush,  and  the  perfected  fohage  of  the  forest ;  Autumn 
enriched  it  with  that  red  and  yellow  gorgeousness  which  converts 
each  wild-wood  leaf  into  a  painted  flower ;  and  Winter  silvered  it 
with  sleet,  and  hung  it  round  with  icicles,  till  it  flashed  in  the  cold 
sunshine,  itself  a  frozen  sunbeam.  —  Hawthorne. 

CHAPTER   LXXXIV 

SELECTIONS    FOR   ANALYSIS 

I.    The  Arrow  and  the  Song 

I  shot  an  arrow  into  the  air. 
It  fell  to  earth,  I  knew  not  where ; 
For,  so  swiftly  it  flew,  the  sight 
Could  not  follow  it  in  its  flight. 

I  breathed  a  song  into  the  air. 
It  fell  to  earth,  I  knew  not  where  ; 
For  who  has  sight  so  keen  and  strong 
That  it  can  follow  the  flight  of  song  ? 

Long,  long  afterward,  in  an  oak 
I  found  the  arrow,  still  unbroke ; 
And  the  song,  from  beginning  to  end, 
I  found  again  in  the  heart  of  a  friend. 

—  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow. 


256  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


II.    Rip  Van  Winkle 

The  great  error  in  Rip's  composition  was  an  insuperable  aversion 
to  all  kinds  of  profitable  labor.  It  could  not  be  from  the  want 
of  assiduity  or  perseverance ;  for  he  would  sit  on  a  wet  rock,  with 
a  rod  as  long  and  heavy  as  a  Tartar's  lance,  and  fish  all  day  with- 
out a  murmur,  even  though  he  should  not  be  encouraged  by  a 
single  nibble.  He  would  carry  a  fowling-piece  on  his  shoulder 
for  hours  together,  trudging  through  woods  and  swamps,  and  up 
hill  and  down  dale,  to  shoot  a  few  squirrels  or  wild  pigeons.  He 
would  never  refuse  to  assist  a  neighbor,  even  in  the  roughest  toil, 
and  was  a  foremost  man  at  all  country  frolics  for  husking  Indian 
corn  or  building  stone  fences.  The  women  of  the  village,  too, 
used  to  employ  him  to  run  their  errands,  and  to  do  such  little 
odd  jobs  as  their  less  obliging  husbands  would  not  do  for  them. 
In  a  word.  Rip  was  ready  to  attend  to  anybody's  business  but 
his  own;  but  as  to  doing  family  duty,  and  keeping  his  farm  in 
order,  he  found  it  impossible. 

In  fact,  he  declared  it  was  of  no  use  to  work  on  his  farm  ;  it 
was  the  most  pestilent  Httle  piece  of  ground  in  the  whole  country ; 
everything  about  it  went  wrong,  and  would  go  wrong  in  spite  of 
him.  His  fences  were  continually  falling  to  pieces ;  his  cow  would 
either  go  astray,  or  get  among  the  cabbages ;  weeds  were  sure  to 
grow  quicker  in  his  fields  than  anywhere  else ;  the  rain  always 
made  a  point  of  setting  in  just  as  he  had  some  outdoor  work  to 
do ;  so  that  though  his  patrimonial  estate  had  dwindled  away  under 
his  management,  acre  by  acre,  until  there  was  Httle  more  left  than 
a  mere  patch  of  Indian  corn  and  potatoes,  yet  it  was  the  worst- 
conditioned  farm  in  the  neighborhood.  —  Washington  Irving. 


SELECTIONS   FOR  ANALYSIS  257 

IIL     The  Poet's  Song 

The  rain  had  fallen,  the  Poet  arose, 

He  passed  by  tne  town  and  out  of  the  street, 
A  light  wind  blew  from  the  gates  of  the  sun. 

And  waves  of  shadow  went  over  the  wheat, 
And  he  sat  him  down  in  a  lonely  place. 

And  chanted  a  melody  loud  and  sweet. 
That  made  the  wild-swan  pause  in  her  cloud, 

And  the  lark  drop  down  at  his  feet. 

The  swallow  stopt  as  he  hunted  the  bee, 

The  snake  slipt  under  a  spray. 
The  wild  hawk  stood  with  the  down  on  his  beak. 

And  stared,  with  his  foot  on  the  prey. 
And  the  nightingale  thought,  *.*  I  have  sung  many  songs, 

But  never  a  one  so  gay. 
For  he  sings  of  what  the  world  will  be 

When  the  years  have  died  away."  — Alfred  Tennyson. 

IV.    Leaves 

The  leaves,  as  we  shall  see  immediately,  are  the  feeders  of  the 
plant.  Their  own  orderly  habits  of  succession  must  not  interfere 
with  their  main  business  of  finding  food.  Where  the  sun  and  air 
are,  the  leaf  must  go,  whether  it  be  out  of  order  or  not.  So,  there- 
fore, in  any  group,  the  first  consideration  with  the  young  leaves  is 
much  like  that  of  young  bees,  how  to  keep  out  of  each  other's  way, 
that  every  one  may  at  once  leave  its  neighbors  as  much  free-air 
pasture  as  possible,  and  obtain  a  relative  freedom  for  itself.  This 
would  be  a  quite  simple  matter,  and  produce  other  simply  balanced 
forms,  if  each  branch,  with  open  air  all  round  it,  had  nothing  to 


258  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

think  of  but  reconcilement  of  interests  among  its  own  leaves.  But 
every  branch  has  others  to  meet  or  to  cross,  sharing  with  them,  in 
various  advantage,  what  shade,  or  sun,  oi  rain  is  to  be  had.  Hence 
every  single  leaf-cluster  presents  the  general  aspect  of  a  little  family, 
entirely  at  unity  among  themselves,  but  obliged  to  get  their  living 
by  various  shifts,  concessions,  and  infringements  of  the  family  rules, 
in  order  not  to  invade  the  privileges  of  other  people  in  their 
neighborhood.  —  John  Ruskin. 

V.    The  Constitution 

What  is  the  Constitution?  It  is  the  bond  which  binds  together 
millions  of  brothers.  What  is  its  history?  Who  made  it?  mon- 
archs,  crowned  heads,  lords,  or  emperors?  No,  it  was  none  of 
these.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  the  nearest  approach 
of  mortal  to  perfect  political  wisdom,  was  the  work  of  men  who 
purchased  liberty  with  their  blood,  but  who  found  that,  without 
organization,  freedom  was  not  a  blessing.  They  formed  it,  and  the 
people,  in  their  intelligence,  adopted  it.  And  what  has  been  its 
history?  Has  it  trodden  down  any  man's  rights?  Has  it  circum- 
scribed the  liberty  of  the  press?  Has  it  stopped  the  mouth  of  any 
man?  Has  it  held  us  up  as  objects  of  disgrace  abroad?  How  much 
the  reverse  !  It  has  given  us  character  abroad ;  and  when,  with 
Washington  at  its  head,  it  went  forth  to  the  world,  this  young  coun- 
try at  once  became  the  most  interesting  and  imposing  in  the  circle 
of  civilized  nations.  How  is  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
regarded  abroad?  Why,  as  the  last  hope  of  liberty  among  men. 
Wherever  you  go,  you  find  the  United  States  held  up  as  an  example 
by  the  advocates  of  freedom.  The  mariner  no  more  looks  to  hia 
compass,  or  takes  his  departure  by  the  sun,  than  does  the  lover  of 
liberty  abroad  shape  his  course  by  reference  to  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States — Daniel  Webster. 


Part    Fifth 

COMPOSITION 
CHAPTER   LXXXV 

THE    PARAGRAPH 

I.     WHAT   A   PARAGRAPH    IS 

Read  the  following  selection,  and  tell  what  it  is  about :  — 
A  Saranac  boat  is  one  of  the  finest  things  that  the  skill  of  man  has 
ever  produced  under  the  inspiration  of  the  wilderness.  It  is  a  frail 
shell,  so  light  that  a  guide  can  carry  it  on  his  shoulders  with  ease,  but 
so  dexterously  fashioned  that  it  rides  the  heaviest  waves  Hke  a  duck, 
and  sUps  through  the  water  as  if  by  magic.  You  can  travel  in  it 
along  the  shallowest  rivers  and  across  the  broadest  lakes,  and  make 
forty  or  fifty  miles  a  day,  if  you  have  a  good  guide. 

—  Henry  Van  Dyke,  Little  Rivers. 

A  series  of  sentences  relating  to  a  particular  point  is  called 
a  paragraph. 

A  small  blank  space  is  usually  left  at  the  beginning  of 
the  first  line  in  a  written  or  printed  paragraph.  When  a 
line  is  begun  in  this  manner,  it  is  said  to  be  indented. 

EXERCISE   206 

Stale  the  subject  of  each  of  the  following  paragraphs^  and 
show  how  each  sentence  in  the  paragraph  helps  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  topic :  — 

259 


260  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


The  English,  from  the  great  prevalence  of  rural  habits  throughout 
every  class  of  society,  have  always  been  fond  of  those  festivals  and 
holydays  which  agreeably  interrupt  the  stillness  of  country  life ;  and 
they  were  in  former  days  particularly  observant  of  the  religious  and 
social  rites  of  Christmas.  It  is  inspiring  to  read  even  the  dry  details 
which  some  antiquaries  have  given  of  the  quaint  humours,  the  bur- 
lesque pageants,  the  complete  abandonment  to  mirth  and  good 
fellowship,  with  which  this  festival  was  celebrated.  It  seemed  to 
throw  open  every  door,  and  unlock  every  heart.  It  brought  the 
peasant  and  the  peer  together,  and  blended  all  ranks  in  one  warm 
generous  flow  of  joy  and  kindness.  The  old  halls  of  castles  and 
manor-houses  resounded  with  the  harp  and  the  Christmas  carol,  and 
their  ample  boards  groaned  under  the  weight  of  hospitality.  Even 
the  poorest  cottage  welcomed  the  festive  season  with  green  decora- 
tions of  bay  and  holly  —  the  cheerful  fire  glanced  its  rays  through 
the  lattice,  inviting  the  passenger  to  raise  the  latch,  and  join  the 
gossip  knot  huddled  round  the  hearth,  beguiling  the  long  evening 
with  legendary  jokes,  and  oft-told  Christmas  tales. 

—  Washington  Irving. 

II 

What  are  clouds?  Is  there  nothing  you  are  acquainted  with 
which  they  resemble?  You  discover  at  once  a  likeness  between 
them  and  the  condensed  steam  of  a  locomotive.  At  every  puff  of 
the  engine  a  cloud  is  projected  into  the  air.  Watch  the  cloud 
sharply ;  you  notice  that  it  first  forms  at  a  Httle  distance  from  the 
top  of  the  funnel.  Give  close  attention  and  you  will  sometimes  see 
a  perfectly  clear  space  between  the  funnel  and  the  cloud.  Through 
that  clear  space  the  thing  which  makes  the  cloud  must  pass.     What, 


THE   PARAGRAPH  26 1 

then,  is  this  thing  which  at  one  moment  is  transparent  and  invisible, 
and  at  the  next  moment  visible  as  a  dense  opaque  cloud  ? 

It  is  the  steam  or  vapor  of  water  from  the  boiler.  Within  the 
boiler  this  steam  is  transparent  and  invisible ;  but  to  keep  it  in  this 
invisible  state  a  heat  would  be  required  as  great  as  that  within  the 
boiler.  When  the  vapor  mingles  with  the  cold  air  above  the  hot 
funnel  it  ceases  to  be  vapor.  Every  bit  of  steam  shrinks,  when 
chilled,  to  a  much  more  minute  particle  of  water.  The  liquid  parti- 
cles thus  produced  form  a  kind  of  water-dust  of  exceeding  fineness, 
which  floats  in  the  air,  and  is  called  a  cloud. 

—  Tyndall,  Forms  of  Water. 

II.    SINGLE   PARAGRAPHS 
EXERCISE  207 

Write  a  short  paragraph  aboiit  some  incident  that  has  taken 
place  in  your  locality. 

Leave  a  margin  half  an  inch  wide  at  the  left  of  your 
paper,  and  a  space  half  an  inch  long  at  the  beginning  of  the 
first  line  of  the  paragraph. 

Topics  for  similar  exercises :  — 

1.  Effect  of  last  night's  frost. 

2.  A  runaway  horse. 

3.  First  signs  of  autumn. 

4.  A  fire. 

5.  Scene  at  the  railway  station. 

6.  A  panic  in  a  school  building. 

7.  A  bicycle  accident. 

8.  Condition  of  our  streets. 


262  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

III.    RELATED  PARAGRAPHS 
The  Busy  Bee 

Let  us  watch  the  bees  as  they  pass  to  and  fro  from  their  hive. 
First  of  all  we  see  some  half-dozen  around  the  door.  They  are 
there  to  warn  off  intruders.  If  we  approach  too  near  the  front  of 
the  hive,  one  of  these  sentries  will  dash  forward  with  an  angry  buzz ; 
and,  if  we  do  not  wisely  take  the  hint,  the  brave  little  soldier 
will  soon  return  with  help  from  the  guard-room  to  enforce  the 
command. 

There  are  three  substances  required  in  the  hive,  —  pollen,  or 
bee-bread,  the  food  of  the  young  bees;  wax  to  make  the  combs; 
and  honey  for  the  support  of  the  community.  The  bees  that  are 
passing  and  repassing  the  sentries  are  not  all  laden  alike.  Some 
of  them  have  little  yellow  or  red  tufts  on  their  legs,  others  have  none. 
But  all  that  return  are  laden.  Those  with  tufts  on  their  legs  have 
been  collecting  pollen  from  flowers.  The  honey-gatherers  and  the 
wax-gatherers  carry  their  stores  in  their  throats. 

To  understand  how  the  pollen  is  carried,  we  should  examine  a 
bee's  hind  leg  with  a  microscope.  The  upper  joint  is  flattened,  and 
its  edges  are  surrounded  with  stiff  hairs,  which  form  a  sort  of  basket. 
When  the  bee  enters  a  flower,  it  takes  a  plunge  into  the  pollen. 
The  pollen  is  brushed  down  into  the  little  basket,  till  a  good-sized 
ball  is  formed.  If  the  bee  cannot  complete  its  load  in  one  flower, 
it  will  always  seek  out  another  of  the  same  kind.  It  will  not  mix 
the  pollen  of  two  different  kinds  of  flowers. 

The  honey-gatherers  and  the  wax-gatherers  draw  in  the  sweet 
juices  from  flowers  by  their  trunks.  The  trunk  serves  as  a  mouth 
and  a  pump.  The  liquid  passes  through  this  into  the  throat,  and  is 
thus  carried  to  the  hive. 

—  Adapted  from  Good  Words  fer  the  Youngs 


STUDY   OF  A   SELECTION  263 

What  do  we  first  see  around  the  door  of  the  hive?  What  do 
these  bees  do?  Why  are  they  called  sentries?  What  is  an 
intruder? 

What  three  substances  are  required  in  the  hive  ?  What  is  pollen  ? 
What  is  meant  by  the  cojuniunity  ?  What  are  the  bees  doing  that 
are  passing  and  repassing  the  sentries? 

Describe  a  bee's  hind  leg.     How  does  a  bee  collect  pollen? 

How  do  the  honey-gatherers  and  the  wax-gatherers  collect  their 
stores  ? 

State  the  number  of  paragraphs  in  this  piece,  and  tell  what  each 
is  about. 

EXERCISE  208 

Write  from  memory  what  you  have  learned  about  the  Beesy 
arranging  your  statements  in  four  paragraphs.      Tell — 

1.  What  bees  are  first  seen  around  a  hive. 

2.  What  three  substances  are  required  in  the  hive,  and 
the  use  of  each. 

3.  How  a  bee  collects  pollen  and  carries  it  to  the  hive. 

4.  How  the  honey-gatherers  and  the  wax-gatherers  collect 
their  stores. 

CHAPTER   LXXXVI 

STUDY   OF   A   SELECTION 

The  Landing  of  the  Pilgrim   Fathers  in  New  England 

I 
The  breaking  waves  dashed  high 

On  a  stem  and  rock-bound  coast, 
And  the  woods  against  a  stormy  sky 

Their  giant  branches  tossed  | 


264  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


And  the  heavy  night  hung  dark 

The  hills  and  waters  o'er, 
When  a  band  of  exiles  moored  their  bark 

On  the  wild  New  England  shore. 

ra 

Not  as  the  conqueror  comes, 

They,  the  true-hearted,  came ; 
Not  with  the  roll  of  the  stirring  drums, 

And  the  trumpet  that  sings  of  fame; 

IV 

Not  as  the  flying  come, 

In  silence  and  in  fear;  — 
They  shook  the  depths  of  the  desert  gloom 

With  their  hymns  of  lofty  cheer. 


Amidst  the  storm  they  sang. 

And  the  stars  heard,  and  the  sea ; 

And  the  sounding  aisles  of  the  dim  woods  rang 
To  the  anthem  of  the  free  1 

VI 

The  ocean  eagle  soared 

From  his  nest  by  the  white  wave's  foam. 
And  the  rocking  pines  of  the  forest  roared, — ■ 

This  was  their  welcome  home  1 


STUDY   OF   A   SELECTION  265 

VII 

There  were  men  with  hoary  hair 

Amidst  that  pilgrim  band  ;  — 
Why  had  they  come  to  wither  there, 

Away  from  their  childhood's  land? 

VIII 

There  was  woman's  fearless  eye, 

Lit  by  her  deep  love's  truth ; 
There  was  manhood's  brow  serenely  high, 

And  the  fiery  heart  of  youth. 

IX 

What  sought  they  thus  afar? 

Bright  jewels  of  the  mine? 
The  wealth  of  seas,  the  spoils  of  war? 

They  sought  a  faith's  pure  shrine ! 

X 

Ay,  call  it  holy  ground, 

The  soil  where  first  they  trod ; 
They  have  left  unstained  what  there  they  found;  — 

Freedom  to  worship  God.  — Felicia  Hemans. 

What  is  this  poem  about?     Read  the  first  two  stanzas. 

What  does  the  first  line  tell  ?  Where  did  the  waves  dash  high  ? 
What  is  meant  by  a  stern  coast?  What  is  the  meaning  of  rock- 
bound?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  third  and  fourth  lines? 
How  would  the  first  two  fines  in  the  second  stanza  be  expressed 
in  prose  ?  On  what  occasion  did  the  waves  dash  high  ?  What  is 
an  exile  ^     What  is  meant  by  mooring  their  bai'k? 


266  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Read  the  next  two  stanzas.  What  do  the  first  six  lines  of 
these  stanzas  tell? 

Ans.   They  tell  how  the  exiles  did  not  come. 

How  many  classes  of  persons  are  mentioned  whose  coming  was 
unlike  that  of  the  Pilgrims  ?  How  does  the  conqueror  come? 
How  do  the  flying  come?  What  do  the  two  remaining  lines  of 
these  stanzas  tell? 

Read  the  fifth  and  sixth  stanzas.  What  does  the  fifth  stanza 
describe  ?     What  does  the  sixth  stanza  do  ?     What  welcomed  them  ? 

Read  the  seventh  and  eight  stanzas.     What  do  these  stanzas  tell? 

Ans.   They  tell  who  were  in  the  band. 

How  many  classes  of  persons  are  mentioned?  Name  each. 
What  is  the  meaning  of  /loary  ? 

Read  the  first  question  in  the  ninth  stanza.  Supply  words  making 
the  second  question  complete.  Express  the  third  question  fully. 
What  does  the  last  line  of  this  stanza  tell?  What  is  meant  by 
their  seeking  a  faith's  pure  shrine  ? 

A71S.  Seeking  a  place  where  they  could  worship  God  in  their 
own  way. 

Read    the    last    stanza.      What    place    should    be    called    holy 

ground  ?     Why  ? 

EXERCISE  209 

Copy  the  poem,  and  cominit  it  to  memory. 
EXERCISE  210 

Find  out  what  yon  can  about  The  Pilgrim  Fathers,  and 

tJien  — 

1.  Tell  in  your  own  words  who  the  Pilgrim  Fathers  were, 
and  what  caused  them  to  leave  their  native  country. 

2.  Teil  where  they  went  first,  how  long  they  remained 
there,  and  why  they  decided  to  come  to  America. 


STUDY   OF  A   DESCRIPTION  267 

3.  Give  an  account  of  their  voyage  to  the  New  World, 
tell  where  they  landed,  and  mention  some  of  the  hardships 
which  they  had  to  undergo  on  their  arrival. 


CHAPTER    LXXXVII 

STUDY   OF  A   DESCRIPTION 

The  Old  A  jjgler's  Cottage 

I  found  the  old  angler  living  In  a  small  cottage  containing  only 
one  room,  but  a  perfect  curiosity  in  its  method  and  arrangement. 

It  was  on  the  skirts  of  the  village,  on  a  green  bank,  a  little 
back  from  the  road,  with  a  small  garden  in  front,  stocked  with 
kitchen  herbs,  and  adorned  with  a  few  flowers.  The  whole 
front  of  the  cottage  was  overrun  with  a  honeysuckle.  On  the  top 
was  a  ship  for  a  weathercock. 

The  interior  was  fitted  up  in  a  truly  nautical  style,  the  old 
angler's  ideas  of  comfort  and  convenience  having  been  acquired 
on  the  berth-deck  of  a  man-of-war.  A  hammock  was  slung  from 
the  ceiling,  which,  in  the  daytime,  was  lashed  up  so  as  to  take 
but  httle  room.  From  the  centre  of  the  chamber  hung  a  model 
of  a  ship  of  his  own  workmanship.  Two  or  three  chairs,  a  table, 
and  a  large  sea-chest,  formed  the  principal  movables.  The  mantle- 
piece  was  decorated  with  sea-shells ;  over  which  hung  a  quadrant 
flanked  by  two  woodcuts  of  most  bitter-looking  naval  commanders. 
His  implements  for  angling  were  carefully  disposed  on  nails  and 
hooks  about  the  room.  On  a  shelf  was  arranged  his  library,  con- 
taining a  work  on  angling,  much  worn,  a  Bible  covered  with  canvas, 
an  odd  volume  or  two  of  voyages,  a  nautical  almanac,  and  a  book 
of  songs.  —  Washington  Irving. 


268  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

What  is  the  title  of  this  piece  ?     What  is  an  angler? 

What  does  the  first  sentence  tell  ?  How  many  rooms  were  in 
the  cottage?     What  was  a  curiosity? 

Where  was  the  cottage  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  skh'ts  of  the 
village  ?  Where  did  the  cottage  stand  ?  How  far  back  from  the 
road  was  it?  What  was  in  front  of  the  cottage?  What  did  the  gar- 
den contain  ?  What  is  an  herb  ?  Mention  two  or  three  kinds  of 
herbs  that  are  commonly  raised  in  gardens.  What  else  was  in  the 
garden?  What  is  the  meaning  of  adorned?  Describe  the  front  of 
the  cottage.     What  was  on  the  top  of  it  ?     What  is  a  lueathercock  ? 

What  does  the  third  paragraph  describe?  What  is  the  intej'ior 
of  a  house?  What  is  meant  by  a  natctical  style?  What  led  the 
old  angler  to  fit  up  his  cottage  in  the  style  of  a  seaman?  How 
was  his  hammock  arranged?  What  hung  from  the  centre  of  the 
chamber?  What  movable  articles  of  furniture  did  the  room  contain? 
What  decorated  the  mantle-piece?  What  hung  over  it?  What  is 
a  quadrant?  What  is  meant  by  the  quadrant's  being  flanked  by 
the  two  woodcuts?  What  hung  on  the  nails  and  hooks  about  the 
room?     Where  was  the  library?     Of  what  books  was  it  composed? 

EXERCISE  211 

REPRODUCTION 

The  Old  Angler's  Cottage 

Write    in   your   own    zvords    a    description    of    The    Old 
iugler's   Cottage, 

EXERCISE   212 

DESCRIPTION  OF  A  ROOM 

Write  a  description  of  some  room  that  yon  have  seen.  Tell 
what  things  were  iri  the  room,  and  how  they  were  arraiiged. 


ORAL   COMPOSITION  269 

Topics  for  similar  descriptions :  — 

1.  A  village  store.  4.    A  country  church. 

2.  Our  schoolroom.  5.    A  family  sitting-room. 

3.  A  blacksmith  shop.  6.    A  fire  station. 


CHAPTER   LXXXVIII 

ORAL   COMPOSITION 

The  Nest  of  the  Bobolink 
Read  the  following  selections:  — 

I 

If  I  were  a  bird,  in  building  my  nest  I  should  follow  the  example 
of  the  boboKnk,  placing  it  in  the  midst  of  a  broad  meadow,  where 
there  was  no  spear  of  grass,  or  flower,  or  growth  unlike  another  to 
mark  its  site.  I  judge  that  the  bobolink  escapes  the  dangers  to 
which  I  have  adverted  as  few  or  no  other  birds  do.  Unless  the 
mowers  come  along  at  an  earher  date  than  she  has  anticipated, 
that  is,  before  July  i,  or  a  skunk  goes  nosing  through  the  grass, 
which  is  unusual,  she  is  as  safe  as  bird  well  can  be  in  the  great 
open  of  nature.  She  selects  the  most  monotonous  and  uniform 
place  she  can  find  amid  the  daisies  or  the  timothy  and  clover,  and 
places  her  simple  structure  upon  the  ground  in  the  midst  of  it. 
There  is  no  concealment,  except  as  the  great  conceals  the  little,  as 
the  desert  conceals  the  pebble,  as  the  myriad  conceals  the  unit. 
You  may  find  the  nest  once,  if  your  course  chances  to  lead  you 
across  it  and  your  eye  is  quick  enough  to  note  the  silent  brown 
bird  as  she  darts  quickly  away ;  but  step  three  paces  in  the  wrong 
direction,  and  your  search  will  probably  be  fruidess. — John  burroughs. 


2^0  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

II 

The  bobolinks  build  in  considerable  numbers  in  a  meadow  within 
a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  us.  A  houseless  lane  passes  through  the 
midst  of  their  camp,  and  in  clear  westerly  weather,  at  the  right 
season,  one  may  hear  a  score  of  them  singing  at  once.  When  they 
are  breeding,  if  I  chance  to  pass,  one  of  the  male  birds  always 
accompanies  me  like  a  constable,  flitting  from  post  to  post  of  the 
rail- fence,  with  a  short  note  of  reproof  continually  repeated,  till  I 
am  foirly  out  of  the  neighborhood.  Then  he  will  swing  away  into 
the  air  and  run  down  the  wind,  gurgling  music  without  stint  over 
the  unheeding  tussocks  of  meadow-grass  and  dark  clumps  of  bul- 
rushes that  mark  his  domain.  —  James  Russell  Lowell. 

EXERCISE  213 

Tell  ill  your  own  zvords  where  the  bobolink  builds  its  nest^ 
ivJiy  the  situation  chosen  is  a  safe  one,  ajid  how  the  male  bird 
strives  to  conceal  from  the  passer-by  the  location  of  the  nest. 

CHAPTER    LXXXIX 

EXERCISES    IN    NARRATION    AND    DESCRIPTION 

EXERCISE  214 

Nesting  of  a  Familiar  Bird 

Write  an  account  of  some  bird  that  nests  in  your  locality. 

S.  Tell  whether  the  bird  is  a  permanent  or  a  summer 
resident,  and  if  the  latter,  at  what  time  it  arrives  in  the 
spring. 


EXERCISES   IN   NARRATION  2/1 

2.  State  the  date  of  nesting,  and  give  particulars  about 
the  situation  and  the  construction  of  the  nest. 

3.  State  the  number  of  eggs  in  a  set,  and  tell  how  many 
broods  are  raised  in  a  season. 

4.  Add  any  facts  that  interest  you  about  these  birds. 

EXERCISE  215 
MIGRATION  OF  BIRDS 

Find  out    what  you  can    about    the  Migration  of  BirdSf 

and  theft  — 

1.  Tell  what  the  migration  of  a  bird  is. 

2.  Name  the  common  migratory  birds  in  your  locality, 
and  tell  at  what  time  they  arrive  in  spring,  and  when  they 
depart  in  autumn. 

3.  Tell  why  these  birds  migrate.  State  whether  they 
feed  upon  insects,  worms,  fruit,  seeds,  fish,  or  other  food, 
and  show  what  effect  the  ccld  weather  has  upon  their  sup- 
ply of  food. 

4.  Tell  how  they  migrate, — whether  they  travel  in  the 
daytime  or  at  night,  alone  or  in  flocks,  —  and  where  they  go. 

EXERCISE  216 

Compare  any  two  of  the  following,  and  state  clearly  some 
of  the  most  striking  points  of  resemblance  and  difference  in 
their  structure,  habits,  or  uses:  — 

Butterflies  and  Moths,  Crabs  and  Lobsters, 

Toads  and  Frogs,  Alligators  and  Crocodiles, 

Snakes  and  Eels,  Rabbits  and  Hares, 

Clams  and  Oysters,  Goats  and  Sheep. 


272  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

Model.  — BUTTERFLIES   AND    MOTHS 

Butterflies  and  moths  when  flying  look  very  much  alike. 
Butterflies,  however,  fly  only  in  the"  daytime,  while  most 
moths  fly  at  night. 

Butterflies  as  well  as  moths  have  four  wings.  When  a  but- 
terfly is  at  rest,  it  holds  its  wings  erect.  When  a  moth  is  at 
rest,  its  wings  are  folded  over  the  body  like  a  flat  roof. 

EXERCISE  217 

Write  about  some  article  that  is  prepared  for  market  near 
your  home  ;  as^  — 

coal  tobacco  wheat  granite 

cotton  petroleum  butter  maple  sugar 

State,  so  far  as  you  know,  the  different  steps  taken  in 
the  process  of  cultivation  or  manufacture,  and  tell  in  what 
form  and  in  what  way  the  article  is  taken  to  market. 

CHAPTER   XC 

STUDY   OF   A    DESCRIPTION 

The  Snow- Storm 

{Frojji  ^^  Snoxv-Bound^''') 
The  sun  that  brief  December  day 
Rose  cheerless  over  hills  of  gray, 
And,  darkly  circled,  gave  at  noon 
A  sadder  light  than  waning  moon. 
Slow  tracing  down  the  thickening  sky 
Its  mute  and  ominous  prophecy, 
A  portent  seeming  less  than  threat, 
It  sank  from  sight  before  it  set. 


STUDY   OF   A   DESCRIPTION  273 

A  chill  no  coat,  however  stout, 

Of  homespun  stuff  could  quite  shut  out, 

A  hard,  dull  bitterness  of  cold. 

That  checked,  mid-vein,  the  circling  race 

Of  life-blood  in  the  sharpened  face, 
The  coming  of  the  snow-storm  told. 
The  wind  blew  east ;    we  heard  the  roar 
Of  Ocean  on  his  wintry  shore. 
And  felt  the  strong  pulse  throbbing- there 
Beat  with  low  rhythm  our  inland  air. 

^  ^  ^  ^  ¥^ 

Unwarmed  by  any  sunset  light 

The  gray  day  darkened  into  night, 

A  night  made  hoary  with  the  swarm 

And  whirl-dance  of  the  blinding  storm. 

As  zigzag  wavering  to  and  fro 

Crossed  and  recrossed  the  winged  snow : 

And  ere  the  early  bedtime  came 

The  white  drift  piled  the  window-frame. 

And  through  the  glass  the  clothes-line  posts 

Looked  in  like  tall  and  sheeted  ghosts. 

So  all  night  long  the  storm  roared  on  : 
The  morning  broke  without  a  sun ; 
In  tiny  spherule  traced  with  lines 
Of  Nature's  geometric  signs. 
In  starry  flake,  and  pellicle. 
All  day  the  hoary  meteor  fell ; 
And,  when  the  second  morning  shone, 
We  looked  upon  a  world  unknown. 
On  nothing  we  could  call  our  own. 


374  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Around  the  glistening  wonder  bent 

The  blue  walls  of  the  firmament, 

No  cloud  above,  no  earth  below,— 

A  universe  of  sky  and  snow  ! 

The  old  familiar  sights  of  ours 

Took  marv^ellous  shapes;  strange  domes  and  towers 

Rose  up  where  sty  or  corn-crib  stood. 

Or  garden  wall,  or  belt  of  wood ; 

A  smooth  white  mound  the  brush-pile  showed, 

A  fenceless  drift  what  once  was  road ; 

The  bridle-post  an  old  man  sat 

With  loose-flung  coat  and  high  cocked  hat; 

The  well-curb  had  a  Chinese  roof ; 

And  even  the  long  sweep,  high  aloof. 

In  its  slant  splendor,  seemed  to  tell 

Of  Pisa's   leaning  miracle.^  —  John  Greenleaf  Whittier. 

What  statement  is  made  in  the  first  two  lines?  Where  was  the 
cheerless  sun  seen?  When?  What  word  describes  the  appear- 
ance of  the  hills? 

To  what  is  the  light  of  the  sun  compared  in  the  second  state- 
ment? Why  waning  moon?  What  words  in  the  third  hne  de- 
scribe the  appearance  of  the  sun  at  noon? 

What  is  the  third  fact  stated  about  the  sun?  What  is  meant  by 
the  thickening  sky?  What  is  the  sun  called  in  the  seventh  line? 
What  is  2,  portent?  Tell  what  signs  of  the  coming  snow-storm  are 
mentioned  in  the  first  eight  lines. 

Read  the  next  ten  lines.  What  is  the  first  thing  mentioned  in 
these  lines  that  indicated  the  approaching  snow-storm  ?  What  shows 
the  degree  of  the  chiil?     Why  would  a  coat  of  "  homespun  stuff"  be 

*This  line  refers  to  the  Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa. 


STUDY    OF   A   DESCRIPTION  ,  2/5 

more  likely  to  shut  out  the  chill  than  any  other  coat?  What  was 
the  effect  of  the  chill  upon  the  face?  Why?  How  did  the  wind 
indicate  the  coming  of  the  storm  ?  What  is  meant  by  the  throbbing 
pulse  of  the  ocean? 

Read  the  next  ten  lines.  When  did  it  begin  snowing?  What  is 
the  meaning  of  hoary  ?  To  what  does  the  use  of  the  word  swarm 
direct  the  attention?  The  word  whirl- dance ?  What  showed  the 
depth  of  the  snow  at  early  bedtime? 

Read  the  next  nine  lines.  How  long  did  the  storm  continue? 
Read  the  part  in  these  lines  descriptive  of  the  snow-flakes.  What 
is  the  meaning  oi  pellicle  ?  What  does  the  use  of  the  word  shone 
imply  about  the  state  of  the  weather  on  the  second  morning? 

Read  the  remaining  lines.  What  is  meant  by  the  glistening 
wonder  1  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  line,  No  cloud  above,  no 
earth  below?  What  is  said  about  the  old  familiar  sights?  What 
did  the  sty  or  corn-crib  resemble?  The  brush-pile?  The  road? 
The  bridle-post?    The  well-curb?    The  well-sweep? 

How  does  this  description  of  a  snow-storm  accord  with  your  own 
observations  ? 

EXERCISE  218 

Sttidy  carefully  the  foregoing  description  of  a  snow-storm^ 
and  then  tell  in  your  own  words  — 

1.  How  the  sun,  the  chill,  the  wind,  and  the  ocean  indi- 
cated the  coming  of  the  snow-storm. 

2.  At  what  time  it  began  to  snow,  and  how  long  the 
storm  continued. 

3.  What  was  seen  on  the  second  morning. 


2^6  LETTER-WRITING 

CHAPTER   XCI 

LETTER-WRITING 

I.     THE   PARTS   OF   A   LETTER 

A  letter  is  made  up  of  five  parts.  (See  Form  on  next 
page.) 

If  a  letter  fills  a  page  or  more,  it  should  begin  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  from  the  top  of  the  page.  But  if  it  occupies 
only  a  few  Hnes,  it  should  begin  lower  down,  so  that  the 
margins  above  and  below  the  letter  may  be  about  equal. 
The  first  line  of  the  heading  should  begin  a  little  to  the  left 
of  the  middle  of  the  page. 

A  margin  should  be  left  on  the  left-hand  side  of  each 
page.  The  width  of  this  margin  should  be  about  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  on  note-paper,  and  about  half  an  inch  on  large 
letter-paper. 

The  address  is  usually  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  business 
letter  and  at  the  close  of  a  familiar  letter. 

When  the  address  is  placed  at  the  close  of  a  letter,  the 
salutation  should  begin  at  the  marginal  line,  on  the  first  line 
below  the  heading,  and  the  body  of  the  letter  should  begin 
at  the  end  of  the  salutation,  on  the  first  line  below. 

EXERCISE  219 

(i)  Copy  on  note-paper  the  following  letter-form.  Leave  on 
the  left-hand  side  of  the  page  a  margin  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  wideband  arrange  the  different  parts  as  they  are  arranged 
hi  the  model  given. 


LETTER-WRITING  2/7 


[heading] 

ScurJuCL  Ba/iiraA>CL,  Col., 


TTlru  djui/L  BA/rtKjzA.,- 


[salutation] 


[body  of  letter] 


[conclusion] 


[addrrss] 

TTTa..  Thxunk  S.  HxAjmjLh, 
TTicuLiharL^VJcb. 


27S  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

(2)  Write  a  lettef^-form  similar  to  the  one  given  on  page 
277,  using  in  it  your  own  name  and  address^  and  the  name  and 
address  of  one  of  your  friends.  Draw  dotted  lines  to  represent 
the  body  of  the  letter, 

II.     THE   HEADING 

The  heading  of  a  letter  shows  where  the  letter  was 
written  and  when  it  was  written. 

If  the  letter  is  written  from  a  city,  the  heading  should 
contain  the  number  of  the  house,  the  name  of  the  street,  the 
name  of  the  city,  and  the  name  of  the  state. 

Note.  —  Sometimes  the  number  of  the  post-office  box  is  used  instead  of  the 
number  of  the  house  and  the  name  of  the  street. 

If  the  letter  is  written  from  a  small  town,  the  heading 
should  contain  not  only  the  name  of  the  town  and  the  name 
of  the  state,  but  the  name  of  the  county  also. 

If  the  letter  is  written  from  a  large  school,  from  a  hotel,  or 
from  any  well-known  institution,  the  name  of  the  institution 
may  take  the  place  of  the  street  and  number. 

The  heading  should  begin  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from 
the  top  of  the  page,  and  a  little  to  the  left  of  the  middle.  If 
the  heading  is  short,  it  may  be  written  on  one  line.  If  it 
occupies  two  or  three  lines,  the  second  line  should  begin  a 
little  farther  to  the  right  than  the  first,  and  the  third  line 
should  begin  a  little  farther  to  the  right  than  the  second. 

Name  the  different  items  in  each  heading.  What  mark  is  used 
to  separate  these  parts?  What  mark  is  placed  at  the  close  of 
each  heading  ? 


LETTER-WRITING  279 

Forms  of  Heading 


RuIXa/T\xL,lIj27vm^^  8,  iq03. 

TTWbckiI,iqoo. 

3 

lib  TTLaAtiyru  St.^VfljdxxrajuikjubjVJcb., 
TizirnJLCUVL|  i2 ^,  1 C]  o  5 . 

T)xoaA>^A.,CcrL.,Sx>pt.  i2  5,  ICjOl. 
(T?  0.  13ox  '^.S.S.) 


280  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Separate  by  commas  the  different  items  in  the  heading, 
and  place  a  period  at  the  close  of  the  heading. 

Note.  —  If  any  of  the  words  in  the  heading  of  a  letter  are  abbreviated,  the 
different  items  must  be  separated  by  commas,  just  as  if  the  words  were  written  in 
full.     A  period  must  be  placed  after  each  abbreviation. 

Do  not  omit  the  name  of  the  state  from  the  heading  of 
a  letter ;  thus,  not  Spi'ingfield,  July  24,   1903. 

Do  not  abbreviate  the  name  of  a  city ;  not  JY.  V.  for  A^ew 
York. 

Do  not  abbreviate  the  distinguishing  word  in  the  name 
of  a  county;  thus,  not  Scho.  Co.  for  SchoJiarie  Co.,  Wash. 
Co.  for    Washingto7i  Co. 

Do  not  write  st,  d,  or  tk  after  the"  number  denoting  the 
day  of  the  month,  when  that  number  is  immediately  fol- 
lowed by  the  number  denoting  the  year;  wot  Jan.  ist,  1902, 
for  Jan.  i,  1902  ;  May  3d,  1904,  for  May  3,  1904;  Dec.  25th, 
1905,  for  Dec.  25,  1905. 

EXERCISE  220 
Copy  the  foregoing  Headings.      Be  carefiil  to  arrange  the 
different  parts  as  they  are  arranged  in  the  fonns  given. 

EXERCISE  221 
Write   headings  for   letters  from    the   items  given  below. 
Arrange  the  items  like  those  in  the  foregoing  forms. 

1.  Austin,  Texas,  May  3,  1903. 

2.  839  Wabash  Avenue,  Chicago,  Ilhnois.  November  15, 
1900. 

3.  Cooperstown,  Otsego  County,  New  York,  August  26. 
1902. 


LETTER-WRITING  28 1 

4.  Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  February  22, 
1901. 

5.  Philadelphia,  Pennsylvania,  January  17,  1907.    P.O.  Box 

947- 

EXERCISE   222 

Write  a  heading  for  a  letter  to  be  sent  from  your  home 
to-day. 

III.    THE   SALUTATION 

The  salutation  consists  of  the  opening  words  of  respect 
or  affection. 

Forms  of  Salutation 

To  relatives  or  friends  — 

X)jixxK,  hcutluA.  -         TTLlj  cLexiA  QXxxAn.- 
TTLlj  (ijexiA  TTlxrtKxA.,- Dx<ia.  1^^ 
TTLl|  cLuiA.  SubtjiA.,-  Dje/iATTLiAi  ficLorcLA/ii)^-- 
X)jjoJ\^  OcLaroAxL:—     DxclA^TTIa,.  W<i/LpxA.:— 

To  others  — 

TTLaxLo/rrL :  —  D-^xxA.  TTLaxLa/rru :  — 

S  Itl  :  —  ^jjoJx.  S  lA,  :  — 

^JuoJx^  S  \y\Jb :  —  Cjje>naXLe/rruL/rL  :  — 

With  what  kind  of  letter  does  the  first  word  in  each  salutation 
begin?  What  words  are  used  for  the  names  of  the  persons 
addressed?  By  what  marks  are  some  of  the  salutations  followed? 
By  what  are  others  followed? 


282  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

When  the  words  fat  her  ^  mother  ^  sister,  cousin,  etc.,  are 
used  in  the  salutation  of  a  letter,  they  should  begin  with 
capital  letters. 

The  salutation  may  be  followed  by  a  comma  and  a  dash, 
or  by  a  colon  and  a  dash. 

Note.  —  Some  writers  do  not  use  the  dash  in  the  salutation  unless  the  body  of 
the  letter  begins  on  the  same  line  as  the  salutation. 

When  the  address  is  placed  at  the  close  of  a  letter,  the 
salutation  should  begin  at  the  marginal  line,  on  the  first  line 
below  the  heading;  but  when  the  address  is  placed  at 
the  beginning  of  a  letter,  the  salutation  should  be  placed 
on  the  first  line  below  the  address.  (See  p.  277,  and  pp.  285 
and  286,  Ex.  i  and  2.) 

EXERCISE  223 

Copy  the  fore^'oing  forms  of  salutation. 

EXERCISE  224 

Write  a  salutation  for  a  letter  to  — 

1.  Your  mother  or  your  guardian. 

2.  A  lady  who  is  a  stranger. 

3.  A  gentleman  who  is  a  stranger. 

4.  A  business  firm. 

5.  Your  teacher.  7.    One  of  your  classmates. 

6.  Your  aunt.  8.    Your  cousin. 

IV.    THE  CONCLUSION 

The  conclusion  of  a  letter  is  made  up  of  the  closing 
words  of  respect  or  affection  and  the  signature  of  the 
writer. 


LETTER-WRITING  283 


Forms  of  Conclusion 

1 


JLoxnrru>lru^  ucruAA, 

.A^JjUL.  JL.TCioLhJjurrL 


TTLodt  sinrucJiAJiJlru    ucruA^, 

Cjjexrr-oc  14-.  T^jLTuprucricLb 


f"a/n/TVL|  S.  A^jdJjjru 


ChuojJljLb  R..TK>aTrbp<?)OTu 


284  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

With  what  kind  of  letter  does  each  conclusion  begin  ?  What  mark 
separates  the  closing  words  from  the  name  of  the  writer?  What 
mark  is  placed  after  the  signature? 

The  first  word  of  the  conclusion  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter. 

The  closing  words  should  be  separated  from  the  signature 
of  the  writer  by  a  comma. 

A  period  should  be  placed  after  the  signature  of  the  writer. 

Some  of  the  forms  used  in  closing  familiar  letters  are  :  — 

Your  loving  son.  Your  affectionate  father. 

Lovingly  yours.  Faithfully  yours. 

Affectionately  yours.  Cordially  yours. 

Sincerely  yours.  Very  sincerely  yours. 

The  most  common  forms  for  closing  business  letters  are :  — • 

Yours  respectfully.  Yours  truly. 

Respectfully  yours.  Very  truly  yours. 

When  the  words,  sister y  brother,  friend,  etc.,  are  used  in 
the  conclusion  of  a  letter,  they  should  begin  with  small 
letters.     (See  Form  3,  p.  283.) 

EXERCISE  225 
Copy  the  foregoing  forms  of  conclusion, 

'      EXERCISE  226 

(i)  Write  five  different  forms  for  closing  familiar  letters. 
(2)  Write  five  different  forms  for  closing  business  letters. 


LETTER-WRITING  285 

V.    THE   ADDRESS 

The  address  is  made  up  of  the  name,  the  title,  and  the 
residence  or  place  of  business  of  the  person  written  to. 

Note.  —  If  the  letter  is  an  important  one,  the  address  should  contain  not  only 
the  name  of  the  place  where  the  letter  is  to  be  sent,  but  the  street  and  number, 
the  county,  or  such  other  items  as  make  up  the  full  address.  But  in  ordinary 
letters  the  name  of  the  city  or  town  and  the  name  of  the  state  will  be  sufficient. 
Many  persons  omit  the  address  altogether  in  familiar  letters. 

In  business  letters,  the  address  of  the  person  written  to  is 
usually  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  letter ;  but  in  other 
letters  it  is  written  at  the  close  of  the  letter.  When  the 
address  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  letter,  it  should 
begin  at  the  marginal  line,  on  the  first  line  below  the  head- 
ing (see  Business  Letter  p.  292) ;  but  when  it  is  placed  at 
the  close  of  a  letter,  it  should  begin  at  the  marginal  line, 
on  the  first  line  below  the  signature  (see  p.  277). 

Forms  of  Address 

1.  —  Business   Letter 

PorUUx/ruL^Vflji. 

DxxiA.  SlA.:- IJcruA.    ^JlXXjUX. 


286  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


2.  —  Business   Letter 


TTleAAAA.  D.  C.  W-exilk  Y  Co., 

CjJeyTUlJ^/TnJ^/ru:—  5tl  hjuoJiru 


3.  —  Familiar   Letter 


OcLtru  X.  Baxtuttl. 
UA..  oCa/TL^i/n^  1\..  Baxtuutl, 
.->^na/ru  .^^Kiror,  TTLucJx. 

Name  the  different  items  in  each  address  and  tell  how  those  parts 
are  separated.     What  mark  is  placed  at  the  close  of  each  address? 

Separate  the  different  parts  of  the  address  by  commas, 
and  place  a  period  at  its  close. 

Do  not  forget  to  use  a  title  when  writing  a  person's 
address.  Some  of  the  most  common  titles  used  in  ad- 
dresses are : 


LETTER-WRITING  287 

I.  —  Before  the  Names  of  Persons 

Mrs.^  Miss  Mr.  Rev.  Prof. 

Master  Misses  Messrs.       Dr.  Hon. 

Prefix  Mrs.  to  the  name  of  a  married  woman ;  Miss  to  the 
name  of  an  unmarried  woman ;  Mr.  to  the  name  of  a  man 
who  has  no  higher  title ;  and  Master  to  the  name  of  a  boy.  In 
writing  to  two  or  more  gentlemen,  use  the  title  Messrs. ;  to 
two  or  more  young  ladies,  the  title  Misses.  Prefix  Rev.  to 
the  name  of  a  clergyman,  or  Rev.  Mr.  if  the  Christian  name 
is  not  known ;  Dr.  to  the  name  of  a  physician ;  Prof,  to  the 
name  of  one  who  has  been  elected  to  a  professorship  in  a 
college  or  other  institution  of  learning. ;  and  Hon.  to  the  name 
of  a  cabinet  officer,  a  member  of  Congress,  a  judge,  a  mayor, 
and  to  the  names  of  some  others  of  similar  rank. 

Note.  — When  a  lady  writes  to  a  stranger,  she  should  prefix  Miss  or  Mrs.,  in 
parentheses,  to  her  name,  so  that  the  person  who  answers  the  letter  may  know 
how  to  address  the  reply. 

II.  —  After  the  Names  of  Persons 

Esq.i         A.M.         M.D.         Ph.D.  D.D.         LL.D. 

Esq.  is  added  to  the  name  of  a  member  of  the  legal  pro- 
fession, and  to  the  names  of  civil  officers  not  entitled  to  the 
prefix  Hon.  A.M.,  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  and  LL.D.  are  titles 
conferred  by  universities,  colleges,  or  other  institutions  of 
learning. 

Do  not  prefix  Mr.  to  a  name  when  Esq.,  A.M.,  or  some 
similar  title  is  added  to  the  name ;  and  do  not  prefix  Dr.  to  a 

^  The  meanings  of  these  titles  are  given  in  the  list  of  abbreviations  on  pages 
319-321- 


288  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

name  that  is  followed  by  one  of  the  titles,  M.D.,  Ph.D., 
D.D.,  or  LL.D.;  thus,  not  Dr,  John  Brown,  M.D.,  but  Z^r. 
John  Brown,  or  John  Brown,  M.D.  Not  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  S. 
White,  D.D.,  but  Rev,  Dr.  Henry  S.  White,  or  Rev,  Henry 
S,    White,  D,D. 

EXERCISE  227 

Write  addresses  to  be  used  in  letters  to  — 

A  married  lady.  A  boy.  A  clergyman. 

An  unmarried  lady.  An  editor.  A  physician. 

A  member  of  Congress.     A  business  firm.      A  lawyer. 

VI.  THE   BODY  OF  A   LETTER 

The  body  of  a  letter  usually  begins  at  the  end  of  the  salu- 
tation, on  the  first  line  below  it  (see  p.  277);  but  when  the 
address  and  salutation  together  occupy  more  than  two  lines, 
the  body  of  the  letter  is  often  begun  on  the  same  line  with 
the  salutation.     (See  pp.  286  and  292.) 

Adapt  the  style  of  the  letter  to  the  subject.  In  writing 
to  relatives  or  to  intimate  friends,  be  unreserved  —  write  as 
you  would  talk  if  your  friends  were  present.  In  writing  to 
superiors  or  to  strangers,  be  respectful. 

Begin  at  once  with  what  you  wish  to  say,  and  when  you 
have  finished  do  not  try  to  think  of  something  to  fill  the 
sheet,  but  add  the  closing  words  of  respect  or  affection,  and 
sign  your  name. 

Do  not  write  a  succession  of  short  sentences  with  the  sub- 
jects omitted  ;  as,  Had  a  pleasant  jonrney.  Found  my  Jriends 
welL     Shall  expect  to  hear  from  you  soon. 


LETTER-WRITING  2S9 

Do  not  begin  a  new  paragraph  under  the  last  word  of  the 
preceding  paragraph,  but  leave  a  space  the  width  of  the 
margin  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  line  in  every  paragraph, 
except  the  first. 

Do  not  rule  a  line  for  the  margin  of  a  letter. 

When  you  use  the  letters  st,  d,  or  ///  after  the  day  of  the 
month,  do  not  write  them  abov^e  the  line,  but  on  the  line ;  as, 
Dec.   i6th,  not  Dec.  16?. 

Do  not  place  periods  after  ist,  2d,  3^,  4th,  etc. 

Do  not  place  two  periods  at  the  close  of  a  sentence  when 
the  last  word  is  abbreviated. 

Do  not  send  a  letter  carelessly  written.  Pay  particular 
attention  to  penmanship,  capital  letters,  and  marks  of 
punctuation. 

If  writing  to  a  person  who  is  not  a  near  relative  or  a  close 
friend,  do  not  forget  to  enclose  a  postage  stamp  when  you 
write  requesting  an  answer  for  your  own  benefit. 

EXERCISE  228 

Write  a  letter  to  one  of  your  cousins  or  to  some  other  friend^ 
describing yonr  school.  Tell  the  number  of  pnpils,  the  7iiimber 
of  teacJiers,  and  siicJi  other  things  about  the  school  as  inteirst 
you  most. 

Follozv  the  form  given  on  page  277.  Give  your  full  address 
in  the  headi^tg,  and  sign  your  own  7tame  to  the  letter. 

EXERCISE  229 

Suppose  that  you  are  away  from  home  attending  school. 
Write  a  letter  to  some  member  of  your  family^  reqiiesting  to 
have  some  article  that  you  need  sent  to  yoti. 


290  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

VII.    THE  SUPERSCRIPTION 

The  address  on  the  envelope  is  called  the  superscription. 
Forms  of  Superscription 


Thuxr  Ijork.. 


Rjur.  W.€mA>L|TlT.PcrTtiiA.,D.D., 
TLoTU/aiJc, 
P.  0.  BoTc^n-  Ccm/rx.. 


LETTER-WRITING  291 

Write  the  first  line  of  the  address  near  the  middle  of  the 
envelope,  making  the  right  and  left  margins  equal.  Begin 
each  of  the  other  lines  a  Httle  farther  to  the  right  than  the 
preceding  line. 

Notice  that  in  the  forms  of  superscription  given  the  dif- 
ferent items  are  separated  by  commas,  and  the  last  item  is 
followed  by  the  period.  Many  persons  use  no  marks  of 
punctuation  in  the  superscription,  except  the  period  after 
an  abbreviation. 

Place  the  stamp  at  the  upper  right-hand  corner  of  the 
envelope. 

To  fold  a  sheet  of  ordinary  note-paper  so  that  it  will  fit  an 
envelope  a  little  longer  than  the  width  of  the  sheet,  lay  the 
sheet  before  you  with  the  first  page  up,  and  the  double  edge 
toward  your  left  hand.  Then  turn  the  lower  third  of  the 
sheet  up,  fold  the  upper  third  down  over  this,  and  press  the 
folds. 

If  a  large  square  envelope  is  used,  only  one  fold  should  be 
made.  Place  the  sheet  before  you  in  the  manner  described, 
turn  the  lower  part  of  the  sheet  up  until  the  lower  and  upper 
edges  meet,  and  press  the  fold. 

Insert  the  letter  in  the  envelope  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
may  be  right  side  up  when  it  is  taken  from  the  envelope  and 
unfolded. 

EXERCISE  230 

(i)  Copy  on  envelopes  the  foregoing  superscriptions. 
(2)    Write  on  envelopes  the  superscriptions  of  letters  to  he 
sent  to  — 


292  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

1.  Your  father  or  guardian.      3.    Your  teacher. 

2.  One  of  your  classmates.       4.    A  business  firm. 

5.    Your  uncle  in  a  distant  city. 


VIII.     A   BUSINESS   LETTER 
Form  of  Business  Leiter 

biC]  Cojmp^>dL  St.,XoijaZ)LrilLi>,  hCij., 
f)jLQjumJUA.  J23,  iqOO. 

TAxx/nidinrL  S  q  woJu^PiXuxi  \\  crrii. 

(JtAjlA.  |t)/L  favJx.  cLcrllaXb  ($i4-.oo),foT  urkLcA 

phxLbJL  J)JUrLcL  "to  TrUL|  oAAAJibJ)  CL  copxi    o^ 

"HoJyjpJiJLd  TTLoTbtKZu  TTLoLcazx/ruL'  jt)A  otxjl 

L|XaAv.-&-€^A/rvm/rL^  U;W\.tKiLTU^/^TU>L/TT^^ 

LjoajLAi)  "DbuXu, 


What  is  the  first  thing  spoken  of  in  the  body  of  the  letter?  Whjit 
does  the  letter  ask  to  have  sent?  Where  is  it  to  be  sent?  When  is 
the  subscription  to  begin? 


LETTER-WRITING  293 

EXERCISE   231 

Copy  the  foregoing  letter.  Pay  particular  attention  to 
capital  letters,  marks  of  punctuation,  and  arrangement  of 
the  different. parts. 

IX.     LEITERS   ORDERING   PERIODICALS 
EXERCISE   232 

Write  a  letter  ordering  **  St.  Nicholas,''  ''  Youth' s  Com- 
panion," or  some  other  magazine  or  paper  that  you  would 
like  to  take. 

Use  your  oivn  name  and  address  in  the  letter,  and  write 
as  carefully  as  if  the  letter  were  to  be  sent. 

EXERCISE  233 

.     Write   a    letter  ordering  a    newspaper  that   is   published 
near  your  home. 

X.    CHANGE  OF  ADDRESS 

EXERCISE  234 

Suppose  you  are  a  subscriber  for  sojne  magazine  or  paper, 
and  wish  to  have  the  address  changed.  Write  to  the  pub- 
lishers and  7'equest  to  have  the  paper  sent  to  your  new 
address.  Mention  in  your  letter  the  na7ne  of  the  periodical, 
and  give  the  old  address  as  well  as  the  new. 


294  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

XL     LETTERS   ORDERING  BOOKS 

Hartford,  Conn.,  Sept.  7,   1905. 

Messrs.  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 

no  Boylston  Street, 

Boston,  Mass. 

Dear  Sirs  :  —  Enclosed  is  an  order  for  three  dollars  and 
ninety-five  cents  {$  3y%V)'  ^^^  which  please  send  me,  by 
express,  the  following  books :  — 

6  The  Sir  Roger  de  Coverley  Papers. 

1  Carlyle's  Essay  on  Burns. 

2  George  Eliot's  Silas  Marner. 
2  Scott's  Ivanhoe. 

I  Webster's  First  Bunker  Hill  Oration. 

Yours  respectfully, 

E.  D.  Read. 

Note.  —  If  you  are  ordering  books  that  are  published  in  various  styles, 
state  in  your  order  not  only  the  title  of  the  book,  but  also  the  edition  and 
style  of  binding  that  you  prefer.     It  is  well  to  state  also  the  author's  name. 

EXERCISE  235 

(i)  Copy  the  foregoing  letter, 

(2)  Think  of  some  book  that  you  would  like  to  own,  and 
write  to  the  publishers  and  order  the  book. 

(3)  Write  to  the  publishers  of  your  Reader  or  your  Geog- 
raphy, and  ofder  a  sujficient  number  of  copies  of  the  book  to 
supply  your  class. 


LETTER-WRITING  295 

XII.    ORDERS 
EXERCISE  236 

Write  to  William  Graj/y  Canton^  N.  K,  ordering  the  fol- 
lowing seeds  to  be  sent,  by  mail,  to  your  address :  — 

I  pkg.  Pansy,  light  blue,  1 5  cts. ;  i  pkg.  Pansy,  King 
of  the  Blacks,  1 5  cts. ;  i  pkg„  Verbena,  scarlet,  20  cts.  ; 
I  pkg.  Verbena,  mixed  varieties,  20  cts. ;  i  pkg.  Sweet 
Mignonette,  5  cts. ;   I  oz.  Sweet  Peas,  mixed  colors,  10  cts. 

Follow  the  form  given  on  the  preceding  page. 

EXERCISE  237 

Write  a  letter  to  some  business  firm  that  you  know,  or- 
dering  goods  of  some  kind.  State  clearly  the  number  and 
kind  of  articles  that  you  desire,  and  tell  how  you  wish 
them  sent, 

XIII.    APPLICATIONS 

Williamsport,  Ind.,  July  17,   1903. 

The  Registrar, 

American  University, 

Washington,  D.C. 

Dear  Sir  :  —  Please  send  me  a  catalogue  of  the  American 
University,  and  greatly  obHge, 

Yours  respectfully, 

Albert  Raymond. 

EXERCISE  238 

Copy  the  letter  above. 


296 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


EXERCISE  239 


Write  to  a  publisher  of  books,  and  ask  him  to  send  yon  a 
catalogue  of  his  publications. 


CHAPTER   XCII 

BUSINESS   FORMS 

I.     BILLS 

1 


Mr.  Lyman  Gilbert, 


Chicago,  Nov.   i,   1904. 


Bought  of  Smith  &  Howard. 


50  lbs.  Coffee  Sugar,       .     .     .    @     8^ 

%  4 

00 

10  lbs.  Java  Coffee, 

.      "    35^ 

3 

50 

4  lbs.  Oat  Meal, 

.      5^' 

20 

8  doz.  Eggs, 

"    20^ 

I 

60 

4  gals.  Molasses, 

"    ']o<t 

2 

80 

50  lbs.  Butter, 

''    25^ 

12 

50 

2  doz.  Lemons, 

"    15^ 

30 

24 

90 

Received  Payment, 

Smith  &  Howard, 
per  Scott. 

When  a  bill  is  paid,  the  person  to  whom  the  money  was 
due  gives  a  receipt,  or  writes  "Received  Payment,"  and 
signs  his  name.     The  latter  is  called  receipting  a  bill. 


BUSINESS   FORMS 


297 


When  a  clerk  receipts  a  bill,  he  signs  the  name  of  his 
employer,  and  then  writes  his  own  name  below,  after  the 
Latin  word  per  —  by.  In  the  foregoing  example,  a  clerk 
named  Scott  receipted  the  bill  for  his  employers. 

What  should  be  written  first  in  a  bill?  Where  should  the  name 
of  the  person  that  buys  the  articles  be  written?  Where  should 
the  name  of  the  person  or  firm  that  sells  the  articles  be  written? 
How  are  the  names  of  the  articles  written? 


Miss  Helen  R.  White, 


Philadelphia,  April  23,   1900. 


To  Margaret  D.   Harris,  Dr. 


1900 

Mar. 

3 

ti 

9 

i( 

19 

Apr. 

3 

(( 

9 

it 

23 

I  Mozart  Sonata 

I  Haydn  Sonata 

I  Nocturno,  Zimraermann  .... 

I  Songs  without  Words,  Mendelssohn 

I  Rondo,  Beethoven 

I  Term  Instruction 


20 


$2S 


50 

75 
50 
00 

35 
00 


10 


Received  Payment, 

Margaret  D.  Harris. 

Of  what  is  the  second  bill  a  record?  Where  are  the  different 
items  placed?  Where  are  the  dates  written?  What  words  should 
not  be  written  until  the  bill  is  paid? 


EXERCISE  240 

Rule  paper  as  in  the  models  given^  and  copy  the  two  bills. 


298  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  241 

Herman  Fuller  bought  the  following  articles  of  Bell  and 
Norton,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  Dec.  17,  1900:  i  Saddle  @  $iS; 

1  Bridle  @  $5  ;  i  Riding  Whip  @  ;^2  ;  2  pairs  Skates  @  $2.50; 

2  Pocket  Knives  @  75^;   i  Hatchet  @  $1.25. 

Make  out  the  billy  and  receipt  it  in  the  name  of  the  firm. 
EXERCISE  242 

Mrs.  Harriet  West  of  Buffalo,  N.Y.,  made  a  dress  for  Mrs. 
Orlando  Foster.  She  furnished  the  following  articles :  8 
yds.  Percaline  @  25^^;  4  yds.  Binding  @  6i^;  i  doz. 
Buttons  @  $1.00;  3  Whalebones  @  25^2^;  Braid,  Silk,  and 
Twist,  40j^.     She  charged  ^10  for  making  the  dress. 

Make  out  a  receipted  bill,  dated  to-day.  Follow  the  Form 
given  on  page  296. 

II.     RECEIPTS 

A  written  acknowledgment  of  money  or  goods  received  is 
called  a  receipt ;  as,  — 


StooLci  cuTucL  Ik  Dottoni),  to  hx)ljosc\XJL  cucxxmml. 

TTL.J^.BXcll;^- 


BUSINESS   FORMS  299 

2 

|30-^.  CKuocu^,  9>u>naje.  I,  I q 00 

JlsujujihexL  ■jrorru  H-th/rc  TIX.  Oui>uj|otcL 
ITuaXu  t)crtlUxAJb,  fur  -IroxxJxA.  to  tklh  cLoLl. 

TnA2>.C.  K..lUAi^. 

When  is  a  receipt  given?  By  whom  is  it  signed?  In  how  many 
places  is  the  amount  written  ?  How  is  it  written  ?  Why  is  it  written 
twice  ? 

For  what  purpose  was  the  first  sum  paid?  What  is  meant  by 
"balancing"  an  account? 

EXERCISE  243 

Copy  the  foregoing  receipts.  Be  careful  to  arrange  the 
different  parts  like  those  in  the  models  given. 

EXERCISE  244 

Suppose  Walter  D.  Moore  rents  a  house  that  you  own. 
On  the  first  day  of  this  month  he  paid  you  thirty  dollars  for 
rent  of  house  to  that  time. 

Write  a  receipt  for  the  amount  received.  Follow  the  Form 
given  ab&ve. 

EXERCISE  245 

Look  at  the  bills  07i  pages  296  and  297  and  write  the  two 
receipts  that  might  have  been  given  in  place  of  the  receipted 
bills. 


300  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

III.    ADVERTISEMENTS  FOR  ARTICLES  LOST 

Lost.  —  On  Saturday  afternoon,  between  the  Commercial 
Bank  and  the  Post  Office,  a  small  black  morocco  pocket- 
book,  containing  a  check  on  the  Commercial  Bank  and  one 
or  two  dollars  in  silver.  The  finder  will  be  suitably  rew^arded 
upon  leaving  the  article  at  714  Broadway. 

What  was  lost?  What  does  the  phrase  on  Saturday  afternoon 
tell?  What  does  the  second  phrase  tell?  What  words  describe  the 
pocket-book?  What  did  the  pocket-book  contain?  Where  was  the 
finder  requested  to  leave  the  article? 

When  you  write  an  advertisement  about  an  article  that 
is  lost,  describe  the  article  so  clearly  that  it  may  be  known 
from  your  description. 

EXERCISE  246 

Yoli  have  lost  one  of  the  articles  named  below.  Write  an 
advertisement  about  the  lost  article,  to  be  inserted  in  one  of 
the  papers  ifi  your  town. 

bracelet  knife  dog  horse 

IV.    ADVERTISEMENTS  FOR  ARTICLES  FOUND 

Found. —  On  Main  Street,  last  Friday  morning,  a  watch. 
The  owner  can  have  the  article  by  calling  at  this  office, 
proving  the  property,  and  paying  for  this  notice. 

What  article  was  found?  Where  was  it  found?  When  was  it 
found  ?     What  is  meant  by  proving  the  property  ? 


BUSINESS    FORMS  301 

When  you  write  an  advertisement  about  an  article  that 
has  been  found,  do  not  describe  the  article  fully,  lest  the 
wrong  person  should  claim  it. 

EXERCISE  247 

Yoli  have  found  one  of  the  things  named  below.  Write  a 
notice  for  a  paper,  advertising  the  article. 

muff  coat  bank-book  travelling-bag 

V.     ADVERTISEMENTS  FOR  HELP 
1 

Wanted.  —  A  neat,  strong  girl  for  general  housework ; 
must  understand  cooking;  references  required.  Apply  at 
189  West  57th  Street. 

2 

Wanted.  —  A  bright,  active,  honest  boy  for  office-work. 
Apply  by  letter,  stating  age  and  giving  references.  Address 
Dr.  L.  B.  Porter,  P.  O.  Box  1247,  New  York. 

What  is  the  first  advertisement  for?  What  qualifications  must 
the  girl  have?     How  is  the  apphcant  expected  to  apply? 

What  is  the  second  advertisement  for?  How  is  the  apphcant 
to  apply? 

EXERCISE  248 

(i)    Copy  the  foregoing  advertisements. 

(2)  Write  an  advertisement  asking  for  a  woman  or  a  girl 
to  take  care  of  yotaig  childre^i.  Mention  some  of  the  qualities 
that  the  applicant  must  possess. 

(3)  Write  a  letter  in  answer  to  the  second  advertisement 
above.     Give  for  reference  the  name  of  your  teacher. 


302  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Note.  —  Do  not  forget  the  proper  form  for  the  heading,  the  address,  and  the 
other  parts.  Remember  that  a  neat,  well-written  letter,  sent  in  answer  to  an 
advertisement,  will  aid  the  applicant  in  securing  the  desired  position. 

VI.    ADVERTISEMENTS  FOR  SITUATIONS 

Wanted.  —  By  a  young  man,  a  situation  as  coachman  ; 
understands  tiie  care  of  horses  and  is  a  careful  driver ;  good 
references.     Address  F.  B.,  325  Third  Avenue. 

Who  advertises  for  a  situation?  What  situation  does  he  wish? 
What  does  the  writer  say  he  can  do? 

EXERCISE  249 

(i)    Write  an  advertisement  for  a  situation  as  gardener. 

(2)  Write  an  advertisement  for  a  sitiiatioji  as  cook. 

(3)  Write  an  advertisement  for  a  situation  as  janitor. 

(4)  A  dressmaker  wishes  to  go  out  by  the  day.  Write  an 
advertisement  for  her. 

VII.     NOTICES  OF   PUBLIC   MEETINGS 

The  annual  meeting  of  the  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  will  be  held  at  the  Fourth  Presbyterian  Church  on 
Tuesday,  the  25th  inst.,  at  3  o'clock  p.m. 

Of  what  meeting  is  this  a  notice?  Where  is  it  to  be  held? 
When  is  it  to  be  held? 

EXERCISE  250 

Rev.  William  Howard,  D.D.,  will  deliver  a  lecture  ofi 
Temperance  at  some  church  or  hall  in  your  place.  Write  a 
notice  of  the  lecture. 


BUSINESS  FORMS  303 

EXERCISE  251 

Some  society  in  your  place  is  to  hold  an  annual  meeting  for 
the  election  of  officers.      Write  a  notice  of  the  meeting. 

EXERCISE  252 

Your  school  is   to  have  public   exercises.      Write  a  notice 
telling  where  and  when  the  exercises  are  to  be  held. 

EXERCISE  253 

Write  public  notices  similar  to  those  you  heard  read  from 
the  pulpit  last  Sunday. 

VIII.    TELEGRAPHIC   DESPATCHES 
EXERCISE  254 

Write,  from  the  items  given  below,  telegraphic  despatches 
of  not  more  than  ten  words  each. 

The  address  and  the  signs ture  are  not  to  be  counted  as  part  of  the  ten  words. 

1 

Mrs.  G.  W.  Hall,  Hanover,  N.H.,  Dec.  17,  1901. 

Rutland,  Vt. 
I  shall  not  reach  home  to-night,  on  account  of  a  railroad 
accident.     No  one  is  injured.  r   W  H  11 

2 

Mr.  H.  R.  Baker,  ^^^^^^'  N'^-'  ^^^^^  ^^'  ^^o/- 

Omaha,  Neb. 

The  house  is  sold,  and  possession  is  to  be  given  on  May 

1st.     I  have  written  you  full  particulars. 

R.  S.  Allen. 


304  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

3 

Baltimore,  Md.,  Dec.  i8,  1904. 

To  the  Passenger  Agent  of  the 

Delaware,  Lackawanna,  and  Western  Railroad, 
285   Broadway,  New  York. 

Please  reserve  for  me  a  lower  berth   in  the  sleeping-car 
that  leaves  New  York  for  Oswego  on  Friday,  the  23d  inst. 

S.  T.  Norton. 
CHAPTER   XCIII 

SOCIAL    FORMS 

FORMAL   INVITATIONS 
Formal  invitations  are  expressed  in  the  third  person  :  thus— 

TTVu.  ojrxxL  VCihJ).  CcLuroAxi  SXxi/rJjuj 
AjinujihZ  XhjL  cJjuxLuiAJL  crL 
VfXx.VJdhxjinrrL  Kiyruc^ 
cxjrrLQXi/ruj  cut  cL/rvruA. 
OTL  \uJihdxxjUi,%wruL  Tuy7\jLtjejL/nIJx , 
clL  sju^-i/n.  o'ouTofc. 

0  2']  OaJc  ..AooTuujL./. 


SOCIAL  FORMS  30$ 

The  note  of  acceptance  or  regret  should  correspond  in  form 
to  the  invitation,  as  in  the  following  examples :  — 

OuCxnupXj)  uruUx  cJjuxbuLnjL 
Vfh^^.  CL/rui.  TTlAi.  £<LujxlAxL  StxL/n/jUj!i 
kx/rucL  UYXJLnXxxLucnn^ 
fur    \\jjiJ)duOJJi^%JinruL  Tuyr\jeJt«je>TiiJx , 

cut   SJLXM/TL    O^cXcrcic. 

AxxyuJi>  tJixuL  CL  pJuLiruruJ)  i/rxY^'u^-^yrruml 

oAjuM/yxtb   hxZ)  oxomJxi/nxije.  crt 
TTIa..  ojtlA.  TTL/ii).  ExLaroAxL  StxxrnJjuj^ 
kjjTucL  L/ruriicuLujrL 
j-OT   I  uxi  dxm  ,  3>uynj^  Tu/rueJ^^ 
cut  SjexK/n,  o^cXcrcic. 


3o6  ENGLISH   CxRAMMAR 

EXERCISE  255 

Study  carefully  the  arrangement  of  items  in  the  foregoing 
forms y  and  then  copy  on  note-paper  these  forms. 

EXERCISE  256 

(i)    Write  an   invitation   to   dinner  from  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Luther  Brown  to  Miss  Julia  Reed. 

(2)  Write  an  answer^  accepting  the  invitation. 

(3)  Write  an  answer,  declining  the  invitation. 


APPENDIX 


3j<K< 


THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE 

Languages  that  have  come  from  the  same  original 
tongue  are  said  to  belong  to  the  same  family.  The  Eng- 
lish language  is  a  member  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo-European 
family  of  languages.  There  are  two  great  divisions  of 
the  Indo-European  family,  an  Eastern  or  Asiatic  division, 
and  a  Western  or  European  division.  These  include  seven 
branches:  Indian  (Sanskrit,  Hindustani,  etc.);  Iranian 
(Persian,  etc.);  Greek;  Italic  or  Romanic  (Latin,  and  the 
Romance  tongues  which  have  sprung  from  the  Latin,  such 
as  Italian,  French,  Spanish,  and  Portugue^);  Celtic  (Welsh, 
Irish,  and  Gaelic);  Slavonic  (Russian,  Bulgarian,  Polish, 
Bohemian,  etc.);  and  Teutonic  or  Germanic  (Scandinavian, 
English,  German,  etc.). 

The  principal  divisions  of  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic 
branch  of  the  Indo-European  family  are:  Scandinavian 
(Icelandic,  Norwegian,  Swedish,  and  Danish);  High  Ger- 
man, the  language  originally  spoken  by  the  people  who 
dwelt  in  the  highlands  of  Germany;  Low  German  (Dutch, 
Flemish,  and  Anglo-Saxon  or  English),  the  language  origi- 
nally spoken  by  the  people  who  dwelt  in  the  lowlands  of 

307 


308  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Germany,  near  the  coast.  The  most  important  member 
of  the  Low-German  division  of  the  Teutonic  group  is 
English. 

The  English  language,  in  its  earliest  form,  was  intro- 
duced into  Britain  about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  by 
the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes,  Low-German  tribes  from 
the  northern  part  of  Germany.  These  invaders  gradually 
displaced  the  native  population  of  Britain,  and  founded 
kingdoms  of  their  own.  They  were  known  to  the  Britons 
as  Saxons,  but  they  called  themselves  "  English "  {Englisc), 
and  the  land  they  had  won  "England"  {Englaland,  the 
land  of  the  Angles).  The  language  of  these  Teutonic 
settlers  of  Britain  became  in  time  the  national  tongue. 
This  oldest  form  of  our  own  language  is  commonly  called 
Anglo-Saxon  or  Old  English. 

The  ancient  Britons  belonged  to  the  Celtic  race,  and 
spoke  the  Celtic  tongue.  As  a  result  of  their  intercourse 
with  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  a  few  Celtic  words  came 
into  our  language.  Among  the  words  of  Celtic  origin 
that  were  adopted  from  the  conquered  Britons  are  the 
names  of  articles  in  common  use  at  that  time,  such  as 
basket,  cradle,  crock,  mattock,  and  mop ;  and  some  of  the 
oldest  names  of  rivers,  hills,  mountains,  and  towns ;  as, 
Avon,  Esk,  Dee ;  Cheviot,  Malvern,  Ben  Nevis ;  Aberdeen, 
Liverpool,  London. 

The  Teutonic  settlers  in  Britain  also  borrowed  from  the 
Britons  a  few  Latin  words  left  by  the  Romans,  who  had 
held  Britain  from  43  a.d.  to  410  a.d.  Among  these  words 
are  strata  (via  strata),  a  paved  way,   and   castra,  a   camp. 


THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE  309 

They  appear  in  modern  English  as  street^  CJicster,  Man- 
chester, Lancaster,  Leicester. 

The  introduction  of  Christianity  among  the  EngUsh  at 
the  close  of  the  sixth  century  brought  with  it  the  study  of 
Latin,  and  led  to  increased  communication  between  Eng- 
land and  the  other  European  nations.  Hence  a  great 
number  of  Latin  words,  most  of  them  relating  to  the 
church,  passed  into  English ;  as,  altar,  bis/iop,  creed, 
church,  clerk,  deacon,  priest,  psalm,  temple.  Many  words 
of  this  class  had  been  borrowed  by  the  Romans  from 
Greek,  but  they  came  into  our  language  through  the  Latin 
tongue.  Owing  to  their  extended  trade,  the  English  be- 
came acquainted  at  this  time  with  many  new  things  and 
products,  and  this  brought  them  such  words  as  cup,  fork, 
lobster,  palm,  peach. 

Toward  the  close  of  the  eighth  century,  Northmen  or 
Danes,  from  the  Scandinavian  peninsula  and  from  Den- 
mark, began  to  make  incursions  into  England.  After  a 
time  they  began  to  settle  there,  and,  finally,  in  the 
eleventh  century,  held  for  a  time  the  English  throne. 
Owing  to  this  conquest,  and  to  the  consequent  close  com- 
mercial and  literary  intercourse  with  Denmark  and  the  Low 
Dutch  coast,  some  Norse  or  Scandinavian  words  were 
introduced  into  the  Enghsh  language.  Among  the  number 
are  many  names  of  places  ending  in  by  (a  town);  as, 
Derby,  Rugby,  Whitby.  Proper  names  ending  in  son  are 
also  of  Norse  origin;  as,  Johnson,   Stephenson. 

While  the  Danes  were  making  conquests  in  England, 
other   Northmen   settled   in   northern   France,   where    they 


3IO  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

were  called  Normans.  Here,  in  the  tenth  century,  they 
founded  the  duchy  of  Normandy,  and  gradually  adopted 
the  customs  and  language  of  the  French  people.  In 
1066,  the  Normans,  under  William,  Duke  of  Normandy, 
conquered   England. 

After  the  Norman  Conquest,  French  became  the  lan- 
guage of  the  English  Court  and  of  the  higher  classes. 
French  was  used  in  Parliament,  in  the  courts  of  law,  and 
even  in  the  schools.  But  the  great  majority  of  the  people 
continued  to  speak  English.  For  a  time  the  two  lan- 
guages were  spoken,  side  by  side,  but  gradually  the  Nor- 
mans and  the  English  became  one  people,  and  spoke  one 
tongue — the  English  language. 

During  the  long  period  when  the  two  races  were  becoming 
one,  a  vast  body  of  Norman  French  words  had  found  their 
way  into  English.  This  element  of  English  is  called  a  Latin 
element,  as  the  French  language,  of  which  the  Norman 
French  is  a  form,  is  descended  from  the  Latin  tongue. 

Many  different  classes  of  words  came  into  English  through 
the  Norman  French.  The  Normans  introduced  feudalism 
and  the  chase  into  England;  they  also  introduced  new 
methods  of  warfare  and  their  own  system  of  law.  Some 
of  the  words  that  came  into  the  language  as  a  result  of  this 
are  homage,  fealty,  vassal,  relating  to  feudalism ;  brace,  chase, 
forest,  mews,  connected  with  the  chase ;  arms,  battle,  captain, 
mail,  vizor,  pertaining  to  warfare ;  attorney,  coiirt,  judge, 
justice,  plaintiff,  sue,  trespass,  terms  used  in  the  law. 

Some  of  the  church  terms  came  to  us  through  the  Nor- 
mans ;  as,  ceremony,  miracle,  penance,  procession,  relic,  tonsure. 


THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE  3" 

A  great  number  of  English  titles  were  introduced  by  the 
Normans  ;  as,  count,  countess,  duke,  empress,  peer,  mayor ;  but 
king,  queen,  earl,  lord,  lady,  and  aldermati,  are  old  English 
words  that  were  in  use  before  the  Norman  Conquest. 

Certain  refinements  of  life  were  introduced  by  the  Nor- 
mans, and  hence  came  such  words  as  carpet,  curtain,  7nirror, 
napkin,  parlor,  table.  Norman  French  words,  like  beef,  mut- 
ton, pork,  veal,  were  introduced  to  designate  the  flesh  of 
certain  animals  when  used  as  food;  but  the  old  English 
names,  ox,  sheep,  swine,  calf,  are  still  used  in  speaking  of 
the  living  animals. 

Besides  the  few  Latin  words  that  the  Teutonic  settlers 
adopted  from  the  Britons,  the  Latin  words  that  came  into 
English  through  the  introduction  of  Christianity  into  Britain, 
and  the  great  body  of  Latin  words  that  came  into  the  lan- 
guage indirectly  through  Norman  French,  there  are  many 
others  that  found  their  way  into  the  language  at  a  later 
period.  Owing  to  the  revival  of  classical  study  in  England, 
a  great  number  of  Latin  words  came  into  the  language 
during  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  Many  of 
these  words  appeared  in  the  written  or  printed  language,  but 
never  passed  into  general  use. 

Many  Greek  words  have  also  come  into  the  language  since 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Most  of  our  scientific 
terms  are  of  Greek  origin. 

The  spread  of  English  exploration  and  the  growth  of 
commerce  between  English-speaking  people  and  people 
who  speak  other  languages,  has  brought  into  English  words 
from  the  Spanish,  Italian,  French,  German,  Dutch,  Chinese, 


512  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

Russian,  Persian,  Arabic,  and  many  other  languages.  Many 
of  these  words  are  the  names  of  articles  or  customs  peculiar 
to  the  country  from  which  the  words  were  borrowed ;  as, 
Spanish:  armada,  cigar;  Italian:  balcony,  lava,  opera;  French: 
bouquet,  chagrin,  programme ;  German :  kindergarten,  meer- 
schaum, waltz,  zinc;  Dutch:  skate,  sloop,  yacht;  Chinese: 
china,  nankeen,  tea ;  Russian :  Czar,  drosky,  steppe ;  Persian  : 
chess,  shawl,  turban  ;  Arabic  :  algebra,  coffee,  gazelle. 

The  EngHsh  of  the  present  day  differs  greatly  from  Anglo- 
Saxon  or  Old  English.  Anglo-Saxon  was  an  inflected  lan- 
guage. That  is,  the  relation  of  words  to  each  other  was 
expressed,  as  in  Latin  and  Greek,  by  the  endings  of  the 
words.  Nearly  all  of  these  grammatical  endings  or  inflec- 
tions were  gradually  lost  after  the  Danish  and  Norman  Con- 
quests, and  we  now  in  most  cases  indicate  the  relations  of 
words  by  their  position  in  the  sentence,  or  by  distinct  words, 
such  as  prepositions  and  auxiliary  verbs. 

Modern  English  differs  from  Old  English  not  only  in  its 
lack  of  inflections,  but  also  in  the  character  of  its  vocabulary. 
The  language  of  our  Teutonic  ancestors  was  an  unmixed 
speech.  It  contained  no  foreign  elements.  Modern  English 
has  in  its  vocabulary  more  words  of  foreign  than  of  native 
origin.  A  large  majority  of  these  words  are  from  Latin  or 
Greek,  many  of  which  are  scientific,  philosophical,  or  tech- 
nical terms.  About  three-fourths  of  the  words  in  common 
use  are  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin. 


II 


RULES    FOR   THE    USE  OF   CAPITAL    LETTERS 
AND    MARKS    OF   PUNCTUATION 

I.     CAPITAL   LETTERS 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence  should  begin  with 
a  capital  letter. 

2.  A  proper  name  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

3.  Nouns  or  adjectives  derived  from  proper  names  should 
usually  begin  with  capital  letters. 

4.  The  names  of  the  months  and  of  the  days  of  the 
week  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

5.  Titles  of  honor  or  respect  and  official  titles  should 
begin  with  capital  letters,  when  they  are  applied  to  an 
individual  or  are  used  as  part  of  a  name;  as, — 

The  President  of  the  United  States,  the  Governor  of  New  York, 
the  Mayor  of  Chicago,  William  the  Conqueror,  dear  Sir. 
Queen  Victoria,  President  Lincoln,  General  Grant. 

6.  The  name  of  a  religious  body,  or  of  a  political  party, 
should  begin  with  a  capital  letter ;  as,  — 

Roman  Catholic,  Protestant,  Episcopalian,  Presbyterian,  Metho- 
dist, Baptist;    Whig,   Tory,    Democrat,   Republican,    Conservative, 

Liberal. 

3^3 


314  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 

7.  The  important  words  in  the  title  of  a  book,  of  a  news- 
paper,  or  of  any  other  composition  should  begin  with  capi- 
tal letters ;  as,  — 

The  Jungle  Book,  New  York  Evening  Post,  In  the  White  Moun- 
tains. 

8.  All  names  and  titles  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with 
capital  letters ;  as,  — 

Lord,  God,  Creator,  Father,  the  Supreme  Being. 

9.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  O  should  be  written 
or  printed  in  capital  letters ;  as,  — 

O  father  !  I  see  a  gleaming  light. 

10.  The    first  word  of    a   direct    quotation    should    begin 
with  a  capital  letter ;  as,  — 

He  replied,  "  Kindness  wins  friends." 

11.  The  first  word   of   every  line  of   poetry  should  begin 
with  a  capital  letter. 


IL     MARKS   OF   PUNCTUATION 
The  Period 

1.  A  complete  sentence,  not  interrogative  or  exclamatory, 
should  be  followed  by  a  period. 

2.  Every   abbreviated    word    should    be    followed    by   a 
period;  as,-^ 

Mr,  Mrs.,  Dr.,  Hon.,  Rev. 


MARKS   OF  PUNCTUATION  3i5 

The  Interrogation  Point 
An  interrogative  sentence  should  be  followed  by  the  in- 
terrogation point;  as, — 

What  will  be  the  result? 

The  Exclamation  Point 
An  exclamatory  word,  phrase,  or  sentence  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  exclamation  point ;  as,  — 

Hark  !    I   hear  footsteps.     O  noble  judge  !      What  a  wonderful 

gift  he  possesses  ! 

The  Comma 

1.  The  name  of  a  person  or  thing  addressed  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma  or 
commas ;  as,  — 

Come  with  me,  John.     Ring,  happy  bells,  across  the  snow. 

2.  A  series  of  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  in  the  same 
construction  should  be  separated  by  commas;  as, — 

He  was  an  honest,  temperate,  forgiving  man.  I  come  to  bury 
Caesar,  not  to  praise  him.  She  knew  how  far  she  could  go,  and 
what  she  could  do. 

Note. — Two  words  in  the  same  construction,  or  two  short  phrases  connected 
by  a7td,  or,  or  nor,  should  not  be  separated  by  the  comma  ;  as,  He  was  brave 
and  patriotic. 

3.  A  transposed  phrase  or  clause  is  usually  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma ;  as,  — 

In  a  very  short  time,  they  had  passed  the  spot.     If  we  fail,  you 

will  be  disappointed. 

Note. —  If  the  phrase  is  closely  united  with  the  sentence,  the  comma  is  not 
used;   as,  Beneath  the  window  is  a  wooden  bench. 


3l6  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 

4.  An    appositive   word    or    phrase   is    usually   separated 

from   the   rest   of   the  sentence  by  a  comma   or    commas ; 

as,  — 

Milton,  the  great  English  poet,  was  blind. 

But  when  the  explanatory  term  combines  closely  with  the 
word  explained,  the  comma  is  omitted ;  as,  — 

The  outlet  of  this  lake  is  the  river  Nile.  The  emperor  Augustus 
was  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts. 

5.  Words,  phrases,  or  clauses  placed  between  closely 
related  parts  of  a  sentence  should  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas ;  as,  — 

It  is  mind,  after  all,  which  does  the  work  of  the  world. 

6.  A  relative  clause  not  restrictive  should  be  separated 
from  the  remainder  of  the  sentence  by  the  comma ;    as,  — 

Cherish  true  patriotism,  which  has  its  root  in  benevolence. 

7.  The  comma  is  often  used  to  indicate  an  omission  of  a 
word  or  words  ;  as,  — 

Labor  brings  pleasure ;  idleness,  pain. 

8.  A  short  quotation,  informally  introduced,  should  be 
separated  from  the  preceding  part  of  the  sentence  by  a 
comma ;  as,  — 

Agassiz  once  said,  "  I  have  no  time  to  waste  in  making  money." 

9.  The  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  when  short 
and  closely  connected,  should  be  separated  by  the  comma; 
as, — 

He  whistled  shrill,  and  he  was  answered  from  the  hill. 


MARKS   OF   PUNCTUATION  317 

The  Semicolon 

1.  When  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  sub- 
divided by  the  comma,  they  are  usually  separated  by  the 
semicolon ;  as,  — 

If  I  ever  saw  the  creature,  it  was  a  long,  long  while  ago ;  and, 
to  tell  you  the  truth,  I  doubt  whether  I  ever  did  see  him. 

2.  Short  clauses,  slightly  connected  in  meaning  and  not 
joined  by  conjunctions,  should  be  separated  by  the  semi- 
colon; as, — 

The  old  men  sit  at  their  doors ;  the  gossip  leans  over  her  coun- 
ter ;  the  children  shout  and  frolic  in  the  streets. 

The  Colon 

When  a  speech  or  quotation  is  formally  introduced  by 
thus,  as  follows,  these  words,  or  some  similar  expression,  it 
should  be  preceded  by  a  colon ;  as,  — 

Carlyle  used  these  words  :  "  Be  true,  if  you  would  be  believed." 

Marks  of  Parenthesis 

Marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  enclose  words  or  ex- 
pressions which  do  not  strictly  belong  to  the  sentence; 
as,  — 

Nor  did  I  fail  (as  is  the  custom  of  landed  proprietors  all  about 
the  world)  to  parade  the  poor  fellow  up  and  down  over  my  half  a 
dozen  acres. 


3l8  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR 


The  Dash 


1.  The  dash  is  often  used  instead  of  marks  of  paren« 
thesis  to  enclose  parenthetical  expressions  that  are  closely 
related  to  the  whole  sentence;  as, — 

A  room  with  seven  doors  —  like  the  famous  apartment  in  Wash- 
ington's headquarters  at  Newburgh  —  is  an  invitation  to  bewilder- 
ment. 

2.  The  dash  is  used  to  mark  an  abrupt  change  in  thought 
or  in  the  construction  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  — 

She  happened  to  cast  her  eyes  over  a  great,  broad  field  ol 
waving  grain  —  and  whom  do  you  think  she  saw? 

Hast  thou  —  but  how  shall  I  ask  a  question  which  must  bring  tears 
into  so  many  eyes? 

Quotation  Marks 

Every  direct  quotation  should  be  enclosed  by  quotation 
marks.  When  the  quotation  is  divided  by  other  words, 
each  part  should  be  enclosed  by  quotation  marks ;  as,  — 

"Have  you  anything  to  tell  me,  little  bird?"  asked  Ulysses. 

"  Peep  ! "  said  the  bird,  "  peep,  peep,  pe-weep  !  " 

The  Hyphen 

1.  The  hyphen  is  used  to  join  the  parts  of  a  compound 
word;  as, — 

man-of-war  twenty-three  crab-apple 

2.  To  join  the  syllables  of  a  word  divided  at  the  end 
of  a  line. 


Ill 


LIST    OF   ABBREVIATIONS 


@ At  or  to. 

A.B.  or  B.A.    .     .     Bachelor  of  Arts. 

acct Account. 

A.D.    ...  In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

Ala Alabama. 

A.M.  {Ante  Meridiem^  Before  noon. 
A.M.  .  .  In  the  year  of  the  world. 
A.M.  or  M.A. .     .     .     Master  of  Arts 

Anon Anonymous. 

Ark Arkansas. 

Ariz Arizona  Territory. 

Aug August. 

Av.  or  Ave Avenue. 

B.C Before  Christ. 

Bp Bishop. 

Cal California. 

Capt Captain. 

Co Company. 

Co. County. 

C.O.D.     .     .     .     C:ollect  on  Delivery. 

Col Colonel. 

Coll College. 

Colo,  or  Col Colorado. 

Conn Connecticut. 

Cor.  Sec,     Corresponding  Secretary. 

Cr Credit. 

Cr Creditor. 

ct cent. 

D.C District  of  Columbia. 

D.D Doctor  of  Divinity. 

Dec December. 

Del Delaware. 

Del.  {Delineavit),   He  or  she  drew  it. 

do.  (ditto) The  same. 

Dr.. Debtor. 

Dr Doctor. 


E East. 

e.g.  {exempli  gratia)      .  For  example. 

Esq Esquire. 

etc.  or  &c..  And  others;  and  so  forth. 

Ex Example. 

F.  or  Fahr., 

Fahrenheit  (thermometer). 

Feb February. 

Fla Florida. 

Fri Friday. 

F.R.S.      Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Ga Georgia. 

Gen General. 

Gov Governor. 

Gov.-Gen.  .     .     .  Governor-General. 

Hon Honorable. 

Idaho Idaho. 

i.Q.  {id  est) That  is. 

Ill Illinois. 

Ind Indiana. 

Ind.  T Indian  Territory. 

inst.,        Instant  —  the  present  month. 

lo-wa  or  lo Iowa. 

Jan January. 

Jr.  or  Jun Junior. 

Kans.  or  Kan Kansas. 

Ky Kentucky. 

La Louisiana. 

L.I -t-t)ng  Island. 

Lieut Lieutenant. 

Lieut.-Col. .  .  Lieutenant-Colonel. 
Lieut.-G^n.  .  Lieutenant-General. 
Lieut.-Gov.      .  Lieutenant-Governor. 

LL.D Doctor  of  Laws. 

M.  {meridies) Noon. 

Maj.-Gen Major-General 


319 


320 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


Mass Massachusetts. 

M.C Member  of  Congress. 

M.D Doctor  of  Medicine. 

Md Maryland. 

Me Maine. 

Messrs.  (jl/essieurs)      .     Gentlemen, 

Mich Michigan. 

Minn Minnesota. 

Miss Mississippi. 

Mile Mademoiselle. 

Mme Madame. 

Mo Missouri. 

Mon Monday. 

Mont Montana. 

M.P.    .     .     .    Member  of  Parliament. 

Mr Mister. 

Mrs Mistress. 

Ms Manuscript. 

Mss Manuscripts. 

Mt Mount. 

N North. 

N.A North  America. 

N.6.  {nota  bene)   ....  Note  well. 

Nebr.  or  Neb Nebraska. 

Nev Nevada. 

N.C North  Carolina. 

N.  Dak North  Dakota. 

N.H New  Hampshire. 

N.J New  Jersey. 

N.  Mex New  Mexico. 

No Number. 

Nov November. 

N.Y New  York. 

Oct October. 

Ohio  or  O Ohio. 

Okla.  T. .     .     .    Oklahoma  Territory. 

Or Oregon. 

p Page. 

Pa.  or  Penn.    .     .     .       Pennsylvania. 
per  cent  (^per  centum^ 

By  the  hundred. 
Ph.D.  .  .  .  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
Pinx.  (^Pinxii)  He  or  she  painted  it. 
P.M.  iposi  meridiem)    ,      Afternoon. 


P.M Postmaster. 

P.O Post-office. 

PP Pages. 

Pres President. 

Prof Professor. 

Pro  tern,  (pro  tempore') 

For  the  time  being. 
prox.  (proximo)  .  .  .  Next  month. 
P.S.  (post  scripttint)  .     .     .  Postscript. 

Rev Reverend. 

R.I Rhode  Island. 

R.R Railroad. 

Rt.  Rev Right  Reverend. 

S South. 

Sat Saturday. 

Sept September. 

Sr.  or  Sen Senior. 

S.C South  Carolina. 

S.  Dak South  Dakota. 

St Street. 

Sun Sunday. 

Supt Superintendent. 

Tenn Tennessee. 

Tex Texas. 

Thurs Thursday. 

Tues Tuesday. 

ult.  (idti/no)      ....    Last  month. 

U.S United  States. 

U.S.A.  .  .  .  United  States  Army. 
U.S.A.  .  United  States  of  America. 
U.S.M.  .  .  .  United  States  Mail. 
U.S.N.     .     .     .     United  States  Navy. 

Utah Utah. 

Va Virginia. 

viz.  (videlicet)  .     .     .To  wit,  namely. 

vs.  (versus) Against. 

Vt Vermont. 

W West. 

"Wash.     .     .     .     .     .     .  Washington. 

Wed Wednesday. 

Wis Wisconsin. 

W.  Va West  Virginia. 

Wyo Wyoming. 


INDEX 


Abbreviations,  list  of,  319-321. 

Absolute,  nominative,  184. 

Abstract  nouns,  31  ;  formation  of,  31. 

Acceptance,  form  of,  305. 

Active  forms  of  verbs,  142, 

Active  voice,  107. 

Address,  nominative  of,  185. 

Address,  in  a  letter,  285  ;  forms  of,  285,  286. 

Adjectives,  12  ;  agreement  with  noun,  201 ; 
appositive  use,  200;  attributive  use,  200; 
choice  of,  99 ;  classes  of,  85-87  ;  compar- 
ison of,  93-97  ;  construction  of,  199-202 ; 
inflection  for  number,  96 ;  not  compared, 
95 ;  parsing  of,  97,  98 ;  predicative  use, 
200 ;  review  of,  loi ;  use  of  comparative 
and  superlative  forms  of,  202;  used  for 
adverbs,  200. 

Adjective  clauses,  240 ;  uses  of,  240. 

Adjective  phrase,  169. 

Adjective  pronouns,  64-66 ;  classes  of,  64, 
65  ;  inflection  of,  65. 

Adverbs,  16;  classes  of,  159-162;  compar- 
ison of,  162;  construction  of,  212,  213; 
distinguished  from  adjectives,  165  ;  pars- 
ing of,  163;  position  of,  212;  review  of, 
166 ;  same  form  as  adjectives,  165. 

Adverbial  clauses,  241 ;  uses  of,  241-246 ; 
of  time,  241-242;  of  place,  241,  243;  of 
manner,  241,  243;  of  degree,  241,  244; 
of  cause  or  reason,  241,  244;  of  purpose, 
241,  245 ;  of  result  or  consequence,  242, 
245;  of  condition,  242,  245;  of  conces- 
sion, 242,  246. 

Adverbial  conjunction,  161. 

Adverbial  object,  191. 

Adverbial  objective,  191. 

Adverbial  phrase,  i6o,  169. 

Adversative  conjunctions,  175. 

Advertisements,  300-302 ;  for  articles  lost, 
300;   for  articles  found,  300;   for  help, 


301;     for    situations,    302;     forms    of, 

300-302. 
Agreement,  of  adjective  with  noun,  201 ; 

of  pronoun  with  antecedent,  193  ;  of  verb 

with  subject,  203. 
Alternative  conjunctions,  175. 
An  or  a,  origin  of,  88 ;  uses  of,  88,  89,  90. 
Analysis    of    sentences,   230-258 ;    simple, 

230-236 ;  complex,  246-251 ;  compound, 

252-255. 
Antecedent  of  pronoun,  67 ;  omission  of,  75. 
Appendix,  307-321. 
Apposition,  183,  196. 
Appositive,  183. 
Appositive  phrase,  228. 
Article,  the,  88-92;  definite,  88;  indefinite, 

88;    repetition    or  omission   of,  90,  91; 

uses  of,  88,  89. 
Auxiliaries  of  mode,  138. 
Auxiliary  verbs,  119, 127-142;  be,  133;  can, 

139 ;  do,  137  ;  have,  130 ;  may,  139 ;  must, 

140;  shall,  131;  will,  131. 

Be,  as  an  auxiliary  verb,  135 ;  as  an  inde- 
pendent verb,  136 ;  conjugation  of,  133 ; 
derivation  of,  133 ;  uses  of,  135-137. 

Bills,  296,  297 ;  forms  of,  296,  297. 

Body  of  a  letter,  288. 

Business  forms,  296-304. 

Business  letters,  forms  of,  292,  294,  295. 

But,  uses  of,  71,  175,  218. 

Can,  forms  of,  139 ;  uses  of,  139. 

Capital  letters,  rules  for,  313,  314. 

Case,  46;  nominative,  46;  possessive,  46 ; 

objective,  46. 
Causal  conjunctions,  175. 
Choice  of  adjectives,  99. 
Cognate  objective,  191. 
Clause,  27 ;  adjective,  240 ;  adverbial,  241 ; 


32- 


322 


INDE^C 


dependent  or  subordinate,  28,  237;  ex- 
planatory, 76 ;  independent  or  principal, 
28,  236;  noun,  237;  relative,  76;  restric- 
tive, 76. 

Collective  noun,  30. 

Common  gender,  42. 

Common  noun,  30. 

Comparative  degree,  93,  202. 

Comparison,  32,  93;  degrees  of,  93 ;  double 
forms  of,  95 ;  forms  of,  93  ;  irregular,  94  ; 
of  adjectives,  92 ;  of  adverbs,  162. 

Complement,  105. 

Complete  predicate,  4. 

Complete  subject,  4. 

Complex  sentence,  225,  236-251 ;  analysis 
of,  246-251;  forms  for  analysis  of,  246- 
250 ;  structure  of,  236-246. 

Composition,  259-306. 

Compound  adjective,  86. 

Compound  conjunction,  176. 

Compound  modifiers,  224. 

Compound  personal  pronoun,  62,  63;  de- 
clension of,  62 ;  formation  of,  62 ;  use  as 
refiexives,  63 ;  use  to  express  emphasis, 
62. 

Compound  possessives,  39,  40. 

Compound  prepositions,  172. 

Compound  relative  pronouns,  71,  72;  for- 
mation of,  71. 

Compound  sentence,  226,  252-255 ;  analy- 
sis of,  252-255;  forms  for  analysis  of, 
252-254 ;  structure  of,  252. 

Conclusion,  of  letter,  282;  forms  of,  283. 

Conjugation,  32;  of  the  verb,  142-146; 
active  voice,  142-144 ;  passive  voice,  144, 
145;  progressive  form,  145,  146. 

Conjunctions,  20;  classes  of,  174;  adver- 
sative, 175 ;  alternative,  175  ;  causal,  175  ; 
compound,  176 ;  coordinating,  174  ;  cop- 
ulative, 175 ;  correlatives,  175 ;  subor- 
dinating, 176;  parsing  of,  177;  review 
of,  179. 

Conjunctive  adverbs,  161. 

Construction,  of  nouns,  181 ;  of  pronouns, 
193;  of  adjectives,  199;  of  verbs,  203; 
of  infinitives,  207;  of  participles,  210;  of 
adverbs,  212;  of  prepositions,  213;  of 
conjunctions,  217. 


Coordinating  conjunctions,  174, 
Copula,  136. 

Copulative  conjunctions,  175. 
Copulative  verbs,  106. 
Correct  use  of  verbs,  153-157. 
Correlatives,  175  ;  use  of,  217. 

Declarative  sentence,  i,  226. 

Declension,  32;  of  nouns,  47;  of  personal 
pronouns,  58,  59  ;  of  compound  personal 
pronouns,  62;  of  relative  pronouns,  71, 
72. 

Defective  verb,  123. 

Definite  article,  88. 

Degrees  of  comparison,  93;  positive,  93; 
comparative,  93  ;  superlative,  93. 

Demonstrative  pronoun,  64. 

Dependent  clause,  28,  237. 

Description,  study  of,  267,  272 ;  reproduc- 
tion of,  268,  275  ;  original,  268. 

Descriptive  adjective,  85. 

Direct  object,  187,  197. 

Distributive  pronouns,  64. 

Do,  as  an  auxiliary  verb,  137 ;  as  an  inde- 
pendent verb,  138  ;  uses  of,  137-138. 

Double  negative,  212. 

Each  other,  64. 

Elder,  older,  95. 

Elements  of  a  sentence,   222;    principal, 

222;     subordinate,    222;     independent, 

223;     simple,    224;     compound,    224; 

complex,   224. 
English  language,  the,  307-312. 
Exercises  jn    narration    and    description, 

261,  263,  266,  268,  270,  271,  272,  275. 
Exclamatory  sentence,  2,  226. 
Expletive,  159. 

Farther ,  further ,  95. 

Factitive  verb,  190. 

Feminine  gender,  42;    of  nouns,  42;    of 

pronouns,  60. 
Foreign  plurals,  41. 
Forms,  of  verbs,  123-127 ;  of  be,  133-135 ; 

oi  can,  139;  oi  have,  129;  oi  may,  139; 

oi  shall,  131;  of  will,  131;  active,  142: 

passive,  144:   progressive,  145. 


INDEX 


323 


Future  perfect  tense,  119. 
Future  tense,  118. 

Gender,  42;  masculine,  42;  feminine,  42; 

common,  42;     neuter,    42;     of  nouns, 

42-45 ;    of  pronouns,  59,  60. 
Gerund,  113. 

Grammatical  predicate,  4. 
Grammatical  subject,  4. 

Have,  as  an  auxiliary  verb,  130;  as  an  in- 
dependent verb,  130;  forms  of,  129. 
Heading,  of  a  letter,  278  ;  forms  of,  279. 

Imperative  mode,  iii. 

Imperative  sentence,  i,  226. 

Imperfect  participle,  115. 

Impersonal  subject,  60;  object,  60. 

Indefinite  article,  88. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  adjective,  65 ;  rela- 
tive, 72. 

Independent  clause,  28. 

Indicative  mode,  109. 

Indirect  object,  189,  197. 

Infinitive,  the,  112;  in  -tng  or  participial, 
113,  116,  117;  simple,  113;  construction 
of,  207,  208 ;  after  the  verbs,  may,  can, 
etc.,  207 ;  as  subject  of  verb,  207 ;  as 
predicate  nominative,  207 ;  as  object  of 
a  transitive  verb,  207 ;  as  object  of  a 
preposition,  207 ;  as  adjective  modifier, 
208 ;  to  express  purpose,  208 ;  used  el- 
liptically  or  absolutely,  208 ;  with  noun 
or  pronoun  as  object  of  verb,  208 ;  with 
possessive  modifier,  208  ;  parsing  of,  150. 

Infinitive  xvL-ing,  113;  distinguished  from 
the  present  participle  and  the  verbal 
noun,  117 ;  uses  of,  113,  207,  208. 

Infinitive  phrase,  167. 

Inflection,  32;  of  nouns,  32-55;  of  pro- 
nouns, 58,  59,  71,  72. 

Interjections,  22,  180 ;  parsing  of,  180. 

Interrogative  adjectives,  79,  80. 

Interrogative  adverbs,  161. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  78-81 ;   use  of,  79, 

Interrogative  sentence,  2,  226. 

Intransitive  verbs,  103 ;  made  intransitive, 
108, 


Invitations,  formal,  forms  of,  304. 
Irregular  verbs,  123;  list  of,  124-127, 
//,  special  uses  of,  60. 

Last,  latest,  use  of,  95. 

Latter,  later,  use  of,  95. 

Lay,  he,  use  of,  153 . 

Learn,  teach,  use  of,  157. 

Lesser,  use  of,  95. 

Letter-writing,  276-306. 

Letter,  a,  the  address  in,  285  ;  body  of,  288 ; 

conclusion  of,  282;    forms  of,  277,  292, 

294,  29s  ;  heading  of,  278  ;  parts  of,  276 ; 

salutation  in,  281 ;  superscription  of,  290. 
Limiting    adjectives,    85 ;     demonstrative, 

85;  numeral,  86. 
Logical  predicate,  4. 
Logical  subject,  4. 

Marks  of  punctuation,  rules  for,  314-318. 

Masculine  gender,  42;  of  nouns,  42;  of 
pronouns,  59, 60. 

Masculine  pronoun,  special  use  of,  59,  60. 

May,  forms  of,  139 ;  uses  of,  139,  155. 

May,  can,  uses  of,  155. 

Modal  adverb,  160. 

Mode,  109;  imperative,  iii;  indicative, 
109;  subjunctive,  no. 

Models  for  the  analysis  of  sentences,  oral 
230,  231,  232,  246,  248,  252;  written,  231, 
232,  233,  247,  248,  249,  250,  253,  254. 

Modifiers,  4,  224;  simple,  224;  complex, 
224;  compound,  224;  of  the  subject, 
227,  228 ;  of  the  predicate,  229,  230. 

Must,  uses  of,  140. 

My,  mine,  etc.,  60,  61. 

Narration  and  description,  exercises  in, 
261,  263,  266,  268,  270,  271,  272,  275. 

Neuter  gender,  42;  of  nouns,  42;  of  pro- 
nouns, 60. 

Nominative  absolute,  184,  196. 

Nominative  case,  46,  181-185. 

Nominative  of  address,  185,  196. 

Notices  of  public  meetings,  forms  of,  302. 

Noun  clauses,  237;  uses  of,  237-240;  as 
subject,  237;  as  predicate  nominative, 
237 ;  as  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  237 ; 


324 


INDEX 


as  logical  subject,  237;  as  object  of  a 
preposition,  237. 

Noun  phrase,  169. 

Nouns,  9 ;  case  of,  45-51 ;  classes  of,  29- 
32;  constructions  of,  181-193;  gender 
of,  42-45 ;  inflection  of,  32-55 ;  number 
of,  32-41 ;  parsing  of,  54 ;  review  of,  55-57. 

Number  of  nouns,  32-41 ;  of  pronouns, 
58,  59,  62 ;  of  the  adjectives  this  and 
that,  96;  of  verbs,  121. 

Numeral  adjectives,  86;  cardinal,  86;  or- 
dinal, 86. 

Object,  of  preposition,  18,  188,  197;  of 
verb,  46,  187,  189  ;  adverbial,  191 ;  direct, 
187,  197;  indirect,  189,  197. 

Objective  case,  46,  187-192. 

Objective  predicate,  190. 

Of,  substitute  for  the  possessive  inflection, 
52;  uses  of,  52, 

One  another,  use  of,  64. 

Order  of  subject  and  predicate,  in  declara- 
tive sentences,  5 ;  m  imperative  sen- 
tences, 6 ;  in  interrogative  sentences,  7  ; 
in  exclamatory  sentences,  7. 

Ought,  use  of,  141. 

Outer,  utter,  uses  of,  95. 

Paragraph,  the,  259;  single,  260,  261;  re- 
lated, 262, 

Parsing,  53 ;  of  adjectives,  97 ;  of  adverbs. 
163  ;  of  conjunctions,  177  ;  of  infinitives, 
150;  of  interjections,  180;  of  nouns,  54; 
of  participles,  151;  of  prepositions,  172; 
of  pronouns,  81;  of  verbs,  147;  selec- 
tions for,  220. 

Participial  adjective,  85. 

Participial  infinitive,  113. 

Participial  phrase,  168. 

Participle,  the,  115;  present  or  imperfect, 
115;  past  or  perfect,  115;  constructions 
of,  210;  used  attributively,  210;  used  ap- 
positively,  210;  used  predicatively,  210; 
used  absolutely,  210;  parsmg  of,  151. 

Parts  of  speech,  23 ;  review  of,  23-26. 

Passive  forms  of  verbs,  144. 

Passive  voice,  107,  135,  144. 

Past  participle,  115. 


Past  perfect  tense,  119. 

Past  tense,  118. 

Perfect  participle,  115. 

Person,  of  pronouns,  57-59 ;  of  verbs,  121. 

Person  and  number  of  verbs,  121. 

Personal  pronouns,  57-63 ;  declension  of, 
58,  59;  double  possessive  of,  52;  special 
uses  of,  59-61. 

Phrases,  27 ;  classes  of,  167,  169,  224. 

Plural  number,  33;  of  nouns,  32-41 ;  irreg- 
ular, 36 ;  two  forms  differing  m  meaning, 
38;  of  compounds,  39;  of  titles,  40;  of 
figures,  letters,  and  signs,  40;  of  nouns 
from  foreign  languages,  41. 

Plural  subjects,  203,  204. 

Positive  degree,  93. 

Possession,  indicated  by  of,  52. 

Possessive  forms  of  nouns,  48,  50,  52. 

Possessive  case,  46,48-53,  186;  of  singular 
nouns,  48  ;  of  plural  nouns,  48  ;  of  com- 
pound nouns,  50;  of  connected  nouns, 
50;  of  phrases,  50;  of  nouns  denoting 
joint  possession,  50;  of  nouns  denoting 
separate  possession,  50;  with  certain 
words  and  phrases  denoting  a  period  of 
time,  52;  with  the  name  of  a  thing  per- 
sonified, 52. 

Possessive,  double,  52;  forms,  my,  mine, 
etc.,  60,  61. 

Possessive  modifier,  186,  196. 

Potential  mode,  140, 

Predicate,  3 ;  grammatical  or  simple,  4, 
222;  logical  or  complete,  4. 

Predicate  adjective,  200. 

Predicate  nominative,  182,   196. 

Predicate  noun,  182. 

Prepositions,  17,  171 ;  after  certain  words, 
216 ;  construction  of,  213 ;  discrimi- 
nated, 213;  parsing  of,  172;  relations  ex- 
pressed by,  171. 

Prepositional  phrase,  167. 

Present  or  imperfect  participle,  115. 

Present  perfect  tense,  119. 

Present  tense,  118. 

Principal  clause,  28,  236. 

Principal  elements  of  a  sentence,  222. 

Principal  parts  of  a  verb,  123. 

Progressive  form,  135 ;  of  verbs,  145. 


INDEX 


325 


Pronouns,  10;  antecedent  of,  67;  agree- 
ment with  antecedent,  193  ;  case  relations 
of,  195;  constructions  of,  193-199;  nom- 
inative and  objective  forms  of,  197; 
parsing  of,  81 ;  review  of,  84. 

Proper  adjectives,  85. 

Proper  noun,  29. 

Public  meetings,  notices  of,  302. 

Punctuation,  rules  for,  314-318. 

Receipting  bills,  296,  297. 

Receipts,  298,  299 ;  forms  of,  298,  299. 

Reciprocal  pronouns,  64. 

Reflexive  use  of  pronouns,  63. 

Regret,  form  of,  305. 

Regular  verb,  123. 

Relative  pronouns,  66-75 ".  antecedent  of, 
67,  75 ;  agreement  with  antecedent,  72, 
193;  declension  of,  71,  72;  compound, 
71,  72;  indefinite,  72;  omission  of,  74, 
75;  use  of,  68-71. 

Relative  clauses,  76-78;  explanatory,  76; 
restrictive,  76. 

Review,  of  parts  of  speech,  23-26;  of 
nouns,  55  ;  of  pronouns,  84 ;  of  adjec- 
tives, loi ;  of  verbs,  157 ;  of  adverbs, 
166;  of  conjunctions,  179. 

Rules  for,  capital  letters,  313,  314;  com- 
parison of  adjectives.  92-94;  marks  of 
punctuation,  314-318 ;  plural  forms  of 
nouns,  33-41;  possessive  forms  of 
nouns,  48,  50;  singular  and  plural  forms 
of  verbs,  203,  204. 

Salutation,  in  a  letter,  281 ;  forms  of,  281, 

Selections,  for  analysis,  255-258 ;  for  pars- 
ing, 220-221 ;  for  study,  259,  260,  262, 
263,  267,  269,  270,  272. 

Sentences,  i;  classes  of,  i,  2,  225,  226; 
elements  of,  222 ;  structure  of,  222,  225 ; 
use  of,  226. 

Sequence  of  tenses,  206. 

Shall,  forms  of,  131 ;  uses  of,  131-133. 

Should,  uses  of,  132,  140, 

Simple  adverb,  161. 

Simple  infinitive,  113,  114;  use  of,  113; 
constructions  of,  207,  208. 

Simple  modifiers,  222. 


Simple  predicate.  4,  222. 

Simple  subject,  222. 

Simple  sentence,  225,  227-236;  subject  of, 
227 ;  modifiers  of  subject,  227, 228  ;  pred- 
icate of,  228,  229 ;  modifiers  of  predicate, 
229,  230 ;  analysis  of,  230-236  ;  forms  for 
analysis  of,  230-233. 

Singular  number,  33. 

Singular  subjects,  203,  204. 

Sit,  set,  use  of,  154. 

Social  forms,  304,  306. 

Stop,  stay,  use  of,  156. 

Structure  of  the  sentence,  222-226 ;  simple, 
227-230;  complex,  236-246;  compound, 
252. 

Study  of  selections,  263,  267,  272. 

Subject,  3,  222 ;  grammatical  or  simple,  4, 
222;  logical  or  complete,  4;  of  a  verb, 
14;  of  an  infinitive,  208. 

Subject  nominative,  181,  195. 

Subjunctive  mode,  no;  uses  of,  no. 

Subordinate  clause,  28,  237. 

Subordinate  elements  of  a  sentence,  222. 

Subordinating  conjunctions,  176. 

Superlative  degree,  93,  202. 

Superscription ,  of  a  letter,  290 ;  forms  of,  290. 

Syntax,  181-221. 

Telegraphic  despatches,  303,  304. 

Tense,  118;  formation  of,  119;  past,  118 : 

past  perfect,  119;  present,  118;  present 

perfect,  119;  future,  118;  future  perfect, 

n9. 
That,  uses  of,  70,  76 ;  in  restrictive  clauses, 

70. 
The,  as  article,  88,  90;  as  adverb,  88,  220; 

origin  of,  88. 
There,  as  an  expletive,  159. 
Think,  guess,  expect,  uses  of,  155. 
Thou,  special  uses  of,  59. 
To,  sign  of  infinitive,  113. 
Topics  for  exercises  in  composition,  261, 

269,  271,  272. 
Transitive  verb,  103. 

Varied  uses  of  words,  218-220. 

Verbal  noun,  31. 

Verbs,  14,  principal  parts  of,  173  ,   regular, 


326 


INDEX 


123;  irregular,  123;  defective,  123;  re- 
dundant, 123  ;  transitive,  103 ;  intransi- 
tive, 103 ;  of  incomplete  predication, 
105;  auxiliary,  119,  127-142;  subject  of, 
14 ;  object  of,  46 ;  complement  of,  105  ; 
voice  of,  107 ;  mode  of,  109 ;  tense  of, 
118  ;  person  and  number  of,  121 ;  agree- 
ment with  subject,  203  ;  forms  of,  123-127, 
129,  131,  133-135,  139;  conjugation  of, 
133-135,  142-146  ;  list  of  irregular  verbs, 
124-127 ;  correct  use  of,  153-157 ;  pars- 
ing of,  147 ;  review  of,  157. 


Voice,  107 ;  active,  107 ;  passive,  107. 

We,  special  uses  of,  58. 

What,  uses  of,  70,  79,  80. 

Whether,  uses  of,  79,  175. 

Which,  uses  of,  69,  79,  80. 

Who,  declension  of,  71 ;  uses  of,  68,  79, 

Will,  forms  of,  131 ;  uses  of,  131-133. 

Would,  uses  of,  132,  141. 

Yes  and  «(?,  160. 
You  use  of,  59. 


VB  36460 


